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<text>* Edwin Hubble announced there were distant galaxies which expanded the size of the known universe (1924).(Click on the above button for more.)* American Arch Hoxsey was killed flying his Wright biplane at Los Angeles, California as a result of his airplane's structure breaking in the air (1910). </text>
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<text>* STS-1 rolled-out onto Launch Complex 39-A in preparation for first Space Shuttle flight (1980).* The famous inventor Charles Macintosh was born (1766).</text>
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<text>* The nuclear-powered Soviet satellite, Cosmos 1402, in preparation for descent from orbit, failed to place nuclear reactor in higher (600 mile) parking orbit (1982).* First time an airplane was able to attain the height of 20,000 feet (1913).</text>
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<text>* Was Christ really born on this date? Wisemen reported a star led to the birthplace. This may have been the conjunction (alignment) of several planets, but according to astronomy no conjunction occurred on December 25th . * The Skylab 3 crew (Carr, Pogue, and Gibson) celebrated Christmas in Orbit (1973). </text>
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<text>* Apollo 8 astronauts wished Earth a Merry Christmas, reading the story of creation from the Bible on Christmas Eve (1968). * First launch of Ariane 3-stage liquid propellant rocket from Guiana Space Center, Korou (1979).</text>
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<text>(From "Apollo 8 Man Around the Moon," NASA EP-66, Office of Public Affairs, NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. 20546.) Apollo 8 Man Around the MoonA BeginningIt was Christmas time, 1968, when man broke his bonds to Earth. Three Americans, Frank Borman, James A. Lovell Jr., and William A. Anders, guided their Apollo 8 spacecraft across nearly a quarter-million miles of black void, out of the grasp of Earth, into orbit around the Moon, and back once more to a chosen pinpoint on their home planet.Never before had man traveled so far, so fast or looked so closely upon another celestial body. Never before had so many millions listened and watched, their imaginations stretched, as the explorers spoke across the emptiness. Never, indeed, had adventure ever borne all mankind so daringly near the boundaries of its aspirations.What the astronauts saw of the Moon, from 70 miles above that foreboding surface, can now be seen by all and studied by scientists in the array of still and motion pictures, many of them in color, taken from Apollo 8. What the astronauts succeeded in proving about the reliability of the spacecraft and its rocket vehicle confirmed that some day soon men will actually set foot upon the Moon.It was the first time that men had been launched into space by the Saturn V, America's most powerful machine. It was the first time, too, that men had sped at nearly 25,000 miles an hour, as Apollo 8 hurled itself from orbit of the Earth and into flight toward the Moon.Each time Astronauts Borman, Lovell, and Anders vanished behind the far side of the Moon they lost all contact with the Earth for 45 minutes on each of the 10 orbits. During the first long silence the black void crackled with tension until Mission Control in Houston reported, "We've got it! Apollo 8 is in lunar orbit.""Good to hear your voice," said Astronaut Lovell.On the Eve of Christmas, as the eyes of the world followed Apollo 8 across the moonscape, the astronauts invoked another, older voice, reading in turn the first ten verses of Genesis, the Story of Creation. Its conclusionΓÇö"...and God saw that it was good"ΓÇö echoed in Astronaut Borman's words as again Apollo 8 headed into the silent, tantalizing absence of earthly communications:"God bless all of youΓÇöall of you on the good Earth."The Making of an AstronautTo be ready for six weightless days of voyaging to the Moon and back to Earth Astronauts Borman, Lovell, and Anders had invested thousands of hours in preparation. Their training was exacting both physically and mentally.That they had done their homework well, in classroom and laboratory, could not be doubted by any who heard their reports to Earth. The astronauts knew their selenography (lunar topography) as well as they knew the landmarks around Houston. That they were physically fit was clear from the rapidity with which they threw off the effects of a virus on their voyage outward.Nor had the spacecraft or the mission any surprises for them. In effect, they had been to the Moon many times, their trips simulated in an Earthbound Apollo which duplicated the features of the mission down to the thump of Apollo 8's jet thrusters and the visible waxing of the Moon as the spacecraft drew ever nearer.They brought to the flight experience in high performance aircraft and in space itself. Anders is a nuclear engineer. Lovell holds a degree in Science. Borman is an aeronautical engineer. Both Borman and Lovell have orbited the Earth in the Gemini program. Lovell holds the record. He has been in space longer than any other man. It is this extensive training, education and experience that goes into the making of an astronaut.The Making of Apollo 8Apollo 8 was eight years in the making.The space vehicle (which includes both Apollo spacecraft and Saturn V rocket vehicle) stood 363 feet tall and incorporated well over 3 million working parts. It was put together inside the Vehicle Assembly Building at Kennedy Space Center, a structure so vast (716 feet long, 518 feet wide, 525 feet tall) as almost to afford a climate of its own. If fans did not circulate the air inside clouds would form and rain would fall.Like man himself, Apollo 8 had to crawl before it could fly. It crept three and a third miles from the Vehicle Assembly Building to the launch pad aboard a crawler-transporter big enough (115 by 130 feet) to accommodate a baseball diamond. The octagonal launch pad, one of two set about 8,700 feet apart, measures 3,000 feet across.The Apollo 8 space vehicle's first stage came from Louisiana; the second and third stages from California. They were tested and made ready in Alabama. Guidance and navigation equipment came from Wisconsin, and was checked in Massachusetts. Systems in the spacecraft came from Florida and New Hampshire.Astronaut Borman, after returning from the Moon, recognized a truth when he said, "Thousands of people made this possible."CountdownElectric power flowed into Apollo 8 at 7 p.m. (EST) Sunday, Dec. 15, 1968, and the countdown started. In one sense, it began a little more than a decade ago when man first learned to put relatively small objects into orbit around the Earth; in another, broader sense, perhaps, it began before the dawn of history when a nameless pioneer lifted calloused knuckles from the Earth and gazed on the heavens.Computers raced electronically through the hundreds of systems of the great vehicle, checking the condition of their millions of parts, systematically verifying the fitness of supporting facilities on the ground. Workers swarmed over the pad and launch tower, filling fuel tanks, installing explosives to separate the stages during the flight, checking electrical connections.The astronauts, spelled often by their backup crew, took their stations in the spacecraft to join the countdown. They had physical examinations and finally suited up.Men and machine were ready for the great adventure.The Voyage OutAt 7:51 a.m. (EST) Saturday, Dec. 21, 1968, Saturn V thundered and thrust against the Earth with all its 7.5 million pounds of power, lifting itself and Apollo from Cape Kennedy. Eleven minutes later Apollo 8 was in Earth orbit. In the second orbit, Saturn V's third stage fired Apollo 8 onto course for the Moon at nearly 25,000 mph.The voyage out took two days. On each day at about 3 p.m. the astronauts appeared live on television screens on Earth. Early on Dec. 24, well within the gravitational field of the Moon, they turned the spacecraft so that its rocket engine, the Service Propulsion System (SPS), faced forward. As Apollo 8 coasted out of sight behind the Moon and out of touch with Earth at 4:59 a.m. (EST), the crew fired the SPS. Not until Apollo 8 emerged from behind the Moon did the world learn that it was in an elliptical orbit ranging between 69 and 195 miles above the Moon. Two orbits later, the astronauts again fired the SPS and achieved a nearly circular orbit about 70 miles above the Moon.For about 20 hours, a total of ten orbits, Apollo 8 remained locked in the grip of the Moon. At 7:30 a.m. and 9:30 p.m. Dec. 24, the astronauts appeared live on television, sharing with those on Earth their view of the moonscape. For most of the rest of the time, they were busy with their cameras and sextant, photographing and locating features on the Moon, giving special attention to proposed Apollo landing sites.Early Christmas morning, once more behind the Moon and out of contact with Earth, they positioned the spacecraft to fire the SPS and free Apollo 8 from lunar orbit. Again, until Apollo 8 emerged from behind the Moon, those on Earth did not know that the engine had indeed fired and Apollo 8 was homeward bound.How Eyes and Ears of World Followed Apollo 8 to MoonTo keep an anxious world in contact with Apollo 8 and Astronauts Borman, Lovell, and Anders, the communications network of the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, combined 14 land stations, four instrumented ships, and eight instrumented aircraft. Circuits of cable, telephone, teletype, and radio relayed messages through terminals both on Earth and on communications satellites orbiting the Earth at an altitude of 22,300 miles.Not only did the system enable Mission Control in Houston to talk with the astronauts and millions to see them on their television screens, but it also monitored the physical functions of spacecraft, rocket engines, and the men themselves. Only during the times when Apollo 8 swept to the far side of the Moon were the astronauts truly alone.So long as Apollo 8 remained no farther away than Earth orbit, the smaller of the land stations, with antennas 30 feet in diameter, could stay in touch. For greater distances, 85-foot antennas at Madrid, Spain, and Canberra, Australia, and the 210-foot antenna at Goldstone, California, were so spaced around the Earth that despite its rotation, one of them would always provide the vital communications link to Apollo 8.Homeward BoundApollo 8 broke out of Moon orbit at about 5,500 mph and under the influence of the Earth's gravity gathered speed with each passing hour as it headed for home. Eventually, upon reaching the atmosphere of the Earth, the speed reached almost 25,000 mph., fast enough, if the angle of flight were too steep, to burn the spacecraft to a cinder or, if the angle too shallow, to bounce it off into space again. To land safely Apollo 8 had to be threaded through what at 80 miles above the Earth amounted to the eye of a needleΓÇöan imaginary doorway some 400 miles by 26 miles.Apollo 8, its service module discarded, hit the eye of the needle blunt end first and began tracing a flaming arc through the atmosphere. Twice the craft was rolled so that the aerodynamic lift designed into it not only slowed descent but actually caused it to climb briefly. The deceleration force on the astronauts rose to six times the ordinary force of the Earth's gravity.Three drogue parachutes automatically deployed at 24,000 feet when Apollo had slowed to about 300 mph. At 10,000 feet when the spacecraft had slowed to about 140 mph., the 831/2-foot orange and white blossoms of the main 'chutes unfolded and eased Apollo 8 into the Pacific a mere 5,000 yards from the main recovery ship, the carrier Yorktown.It was 10:51 a.m. (EST) Monday, Dec. 27, but 4:50 a.m. and still dark on the ocean about 1,100 miles southwest of Hawaii. Just after sunrise, an hour and 20 minutes later, Astronauts Borman, Lovell and Anders stepped out of the helicopter and onto the red carpet on the deck of the Yorktown.</text>
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<text>This is the surface of Saturn's moon Rhea imaged by Voyager 1. It is the northern polar region of the moon. Rhea is 1500 kilometers (950 miles) in diameter and has the most craters per unit area of any of Saturn's moons. The largest crater is 300 kilometers (190 miles) in diamater.</text>
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<text>* Giovanni Cassini discovered Saturn's moon Rhea (1672).(For more information about Rhea, click on the button at the upper left of the photograph.)* Voyager completed a round-the- world flight without refueling (1986). The flight took 9 days, 3 minutes, and 44 seconds and covered 24,986.664 miles.* First case of space sickness as a result of motion reported (1965).</text>
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<text>* Apollo 8, first manned flight to the Moon, launched (1968). This photo of the far side of the Moon was taken by the Apollo 8 crew. They named eight craters for the 8 American astronauts who had died.(Click on the Apollo 8 button above for additional information.)</text>
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<text>* The European Space Agency (ESA) used an Ariane rocket to launch a maritime (Marecs 1) communications satellite. It was launched from French Guiana (1981).</text>
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<text>* First rendezvous in space of two manned spacecraft, Gemini 7 and Gemini 6 (1965). (Click on Gemini 6 and Gemini 7 buttons above.)* Soviets launched Vega, a Halley fly-by spacecraft (1984).</text>
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<text>(From "NASA, The First 25 Years, 1958-1983," NASA, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1983, p. 97.) MARINERMariner 2 August 1962 First successful interplanetary probe, a flyby of Venus; data led to an accurate determination of the planet's mass, and measured high temperatures.Mariner 3November 1964Mars flyby; shroud failed to jettison andcommunications were lost with the spacecraft.Mariner 4 November 28, 1964 Mars flyby; reached the planet July 14, 1965; photographed a heavily cratered, moonlike surface; found that the Martian atmosphere is thin, with less than 1 percent the pressure of Earth's atmosphere, and is composed largely of carbon dioxide.Mariner 5 June 1967 Venus flyby; found weak magnetic field and very dense atmosphere.Mariners 6 and 7 Launched February 25 and March 27,1969. Mars flybys; closest approach to planet achieved on July 31 and August 5, 1969.Findings: Nitrogen is virtually absent from the atmosphere, solid carbon dioxide ("dry ice") occurs in the clouds and near the polar caps, and the dust particles in the Martian atmosphere probably consist of silicate materials derived from the planetary surface.Mariner 8 May 1971 Mars orbiter mission; launch vehicle failed.Mariner 9 May 30. 1971 First Mars-orbiting spacecraft, November 1971; transmitted 7,400 pictures of 100 percent of Martian surface as well as the planet's small moons, Phobos and Deimos.Results: (1) Mars is a two-part world, with an ancient cratered surface in the Southern Hemisphere and a geologically younger surface, with volcanoes, canyons, and dry river channels, in the Northern Hemisphere. (2) It has a huge canyon, some enormous volcanoes, and sinuous channels which appear to be former river beds. (3) Landforms resembling lava flows occur in flat regions. (4) Layered deposits in the Martian polar regions suggest glacial periods in past times. (5) Solar ultraviolet light is not absorbed by the atmosphere and reaches the surface of Mars. (6) Periodic global dust storms were observed. (7) Phobos and Deimos are very dark and have irregular shapes and cratered surfaces.Mariner 10 November 3, 1973 Venus (February 5, 1974)/Mercury (March 29, 1974) flyby; the trajectory around the Sun swung it back for a second encounter with Mercury in September 1974 and for a third in March 1975.Data from Venus: (1) No significant magnetic field; (2) a notable disturbance in the solar wind is produced as it flows past Venus; (3) it is closer to a perfect sphere than Earth is; (4) ultraviolet images of the atmosphere revealed streamline and circulation patterns, including Y- and C-shaped structures; (5) the upper atmosphere rotates much more rapidly (once in about 4 Earth days) than Venus itself; (6) hydrogen and helium were detected in the atmosphere.Data from Mercury: (1) Photographs showed desolate landscapes, remarkably similar to the Moon's with huge craters; long narrow valleys; a feature unique to Mercury, long scarps, or cliffs; flat plains; and a huge circular impact basin (Mare Caloris) about 13,000 km (810 mi) in diameter; (2) it's closer to a perfect sphere than Earth is; (3) it's not only the smallest planet, but the densest with a metal-rich core; (4) a tenuous atmosphere includes exotic gases such as argon, neon, and helium; (5) its magnetic field is about a tenth as strong as Earth's; and (6) the temperatures are extreme, from 425┬░C (770┬░F) to -183┬░C (-297.4┬░F).</text>
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<text>* First fly-by of Jupiter by a spacecraft (Pioneer 10, 1973). (Click first on Pioneer (A) to read the story of Pioneer then click on Pioneer (B) to conclude the interesting story of the Pioneer planetary exploration program.) </text>
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<text>(From "Space Pioneers and Where They Are Now," NASA EP-264, 1987. This publication was prepared at Ames Research Center and edited and authored by Earl J. Montoya (NASA Headquarters) and Richard O. Fimmel (Ames Research Center).) SPACE PIONEERS AND WHERE THEY ARE NOW Earl J. Montoya and Richard O. Fimmel Pioneers in Space to Understand Our EarthThe great excitement of any age has been created by pioneersΓÇöthose who sought out new lands, new ideas, new social systems, new forms of governance, new technologies, and new goals for humankind.In our time we have been privileged to witness an outstanding human achievement of pioneers probing space, the new frontier. This frontier initially begins with the space environment beyond the fringes of Earth's atmosphere, then extends into the space between Earth and the orbit of the Moon, next into the inner Solar System, and with current exploration, into the outer Solar System and beyond.As sailing ships characterized Columbus pioneering the discovery of the New World, as the covered wagon "prairie schooners" characterized the exploration of the West, we now have spacecraft to characterize the exploration of space frontiers. This modern exploration involved large team efforts of many people, including clerks, secretaries, technicians, engineers, scientists, and managers. Engineers became deeply involved in the challenging development of these highly reliable spacecraft. New techniques for remote control of spacecraft operations and for communicating over many millions of miles of space were devised to achieve the objectives. Scientists devised new ways to conduct experiments at enormous distances from Earth.Objectives of these pioneering activities have been to broaden human knowledge of the environment of the Solar System, of which our Earth is a member planet, and to try to understand more about how this environment affects life on Earth, its past and its future. To do so, scientists needed to know how the Sun affects the environment in the space containing the planets (the interplanetary environment); how energetic particles, protons and electrons, and radiation from the Sun spread through space to the planets; how the planets are affected by these solar influences and what happens at different times during the 11-year solar activity cycles and the occurrence of individual storms on the Sun; andhow the other planets are affected compared with Earth. Scientists also want to know how far the influence of the Sun extends into space as a heliosphere and how and where the interstellar environmentΓÇöthe character of space containing the starsΓÇöbecomes predominant. This is important to our understanding of how we on Earth might be affected by events occurring in the galaxy of stars and dust and gas clouds beyond our Solar System.Four groups of pioneering spacecraft have made, and continue to make, significant progress in the exploration of the near space frontier and the achievement of these objectives. These spacecraft started with Pioneers 1 through 5, which made the first thrusts into space toward the Moon and into interplanetary orbit. They continued with Pioneers 6 through 9, which explored inward and outward from Earth's orbit. The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe (Pioneer 13) pushed to the incredibly hot surface of Venus, the errant twin of Earth, and the Pioneer Venus Orbiter (Pioneer 12) surveyed that intriguing planet from orbit for many years. Pioneers 10 and 11, which blazed a trail through the asteroid belt and the were first to explore Jupiter, Saturn, and the outer Solar System, are currently seeking the borders of the heliosphere, and will ultimately journey to the distant stars.Many of these Pioneers have operated far beyond the period expected of them in their original concept and design. The initial relatively small investments have brought a priceless wealth of new information to our national resource of basic knowledge. Several of the spacecraft can productively continue gathering more important data for many years to come. All we need to do to harvest benefit from this continued pioneering is to keep watch over some of these spacecraft, direct their attention periodically to new targets of opportunity, and receive and process the information being sent back to us. First PioneersThe first program to initially explore the "near" space frontier consisted of a group of Pioneer spacecraft initiated by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defense in 1958 when it authorized five launches toward the Moon. Three spacecraft were the responsibility of the Air Force, and two the responsibility of the Army. As part of the nation's contribution to the International Geophysical Year, these lunar probe Pioneers were intended to gather data from beyond the fringes of Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, they were intended to develop a technology to reach escape velocity from the gravitational pull of Earth and to navigate a spacecraft to the vicinity of another world, namely, the Moon, as a prelude to interplanetary missions.By 1958 a few Earth-orbiting spacecraft had been successfully launched: Sputniks I and II and Explorer. They showed that surrounding Earth is a very complex region of magnetic fields and high-energy charged particles. As a result there was great interest in exploring this dynamically changing environment to much greater distances from Earth. Earlier concepts of an uninteresting vacuum of space had rapidly changed to accept an involved and dynamic structure of the space environment; an extremely active region of particles and electromagnetic fields interacting with each other and with the planets in what was then poorly understood ways.These Pioneers were launched with varying measures of success. On October 11, 1958, Pioneer 1 attained a distance of 72,765 miles from Earth before falling back to Earth. A magnetometer carried by the spacecraft revealed for the first time complex geomagnetic effects thousands of miles from Earth. Pioneer 2 reached only 963 miles from Earth on November 8, 1958. Pioneer 3, under the management of the newly formed National Aeronautics and Space Administration, reached 63,580 miles on December 6, 1958, before falling back to Earth. Pioneer 4, launched on March 3, 1959, reached escape velocity, passed within 37,300 miles of the Moon, and went into orbit around the Sun. Another lunar probe, Pioneer 5, was launched on March 11, 1960, and entered an orbit around the Sun on a mission to explore space to the maximum range of communications available at that time.All these spacecraft made important discoveries about the extent and form of the Earth's magnetosphere, the region relatively close to Earth where the Earth's magnetic field deflects the solar wind's blizzard of electrons and protons and traps some of these energetic particles to create radiation belts. These discoveries led to intriguing new questions which required a more advanced type of spacecraft capable of exploring space to considerable distances within and beyond Earth's orbit. There followed the Interplanetary Pioneers 6 through 9, designed to explore the environment of Earth's orbit, to investigate the solar wind and its effects on Earth, to observe the interplanetary medium closer to, and further from, the Sun, and to define the important role of particles and fields in their interactions with the planets. The Interplanetary PioneersFive spacecraft were planned, all virtually identical and spin-stabilized, and each designed to operate in space for at least 180 days; i.e., approximately half an orbit around the Sun. Pioneer 6 left Earth successfully on December 16, 1965; Pioneer 7 on August 17, 1966; Pioneer 8 on December 13, 1967; and Pioneer 9 on November 8, 1968. The fifth spacecraft was lost because of a Delta launch vehicle failure.These Pioneers demonstrated the practicality of spinning the spacecraft to stabilize it and to simplify control of its orientation. Measurements made by these spacecraft greatly increased our knowledge of the interplanetary environment and the effects of solar activity on Earth. New information was gathered about the solar wind, solar cosmic rays, the structure of the Sun's plasma and magnetic fields, the physics of particles in space, and the nature of storms on the Sun which produce solar flares. Important incidental results were a more accurate measurement of the mean distance of Earth from the Sun, referred to as the astronomical unit (AU), and more accurate measurement of the masses of the Earth and Moon. Additionally, the spacecraft demonstrated high reliability by operating successfully for many years beyond their design lifetime.Pioneers 6 and 9 traveled along orbits which carried them inward to a distance of 0.8 AU from the Sun; Pioneers 7 and 8 moved away from the Sun to a distance of 1.1 AU. to explore the region of the Earth's magnetotail and wake, streaming like a pennant away from the Sun. When Pioneers 7 and 8 explored the magnetic tail of the Earth, they discovered well-ordered characteristics but with discontinuities at great distances from Earth.At the beginning of the space age there had been a belief that cosmic dust could present a serious hazard to spacecraft. The Pioneers proved this fear to be unwarranted. Also, these spacecraft recorded the numbers of different types of cosmic rays and showed how they vary with the solar cycle.The structure of the interplanetary magnetic field was discovered, pulses of solar protons from the outburst of flares on the Sun were recorded, and short-term changes in the Earth's magnetic field in space were discovered. The spacecraft also identified cosmic rays of Galactic origin and found a striking anisotropy (directional organization) of cosmic rays of low energies compared with those of high energies. It was found that the low-energy cosmic rays come mainly from the Sun even at the minimum of solar activity.Before Pioneer 6, few spacecraft were capable of making detailed measurements of the solar wind. The Pioneers discovered an east-west asymmetry of the solar wind. The wind was described as spiraling from the Sun, analogous to a rotating water sprinkler. The Pioneers were first to show that its direction and speed could be recorded and studied.Radio signals sent from Earth to the spacecraft checked the propagation of radio waves through space and how this propagation is affected by storms on the Sun. Detailed studies were made on the plasma clouds ejected from the Sun by solar flares. The shapes and extent of plasma clouds passing by the Earth were determined. Passage of radio waves through the solar corona was also investigated for the first time as Pioneer spacecraft were occulted (passed behind the Sun). Planetary PioneersIn size Venus is the closest planet to being Earth's twin; but it is an errant twin that has evolved into a very inimical world from the standpoint of living things. The study of Venus has deep implications for understanding our own planet. We need to know why and how Earth evolved benignly from the primordial solar nebula for life to evolve upon it and continue to be supported by it. With the growing awareness of long-term environmental effects on Earth, scientists wanted to know much more about Venus and its meanings for Earth; why Venus is so different; why it should have such a strange atmosphereΓÇö100 times as dense as Earth'sΓÇöthat shields the planet's surface from direct Earth-based observation at wavelengths of visible light; why its surface is hot enough to melt lead; and why the planet lacks significant amounts of oxygen and water. If Venus had oceans, where did they go?The Pioneer Venus program was designed to investigate this mysterious planet in detail. The Pioneer 13 multiprobe spacecraft dispatched heat-resisting probes to penetrate the atmosphere and radio back to Earth in situ measurements from the upper atmosphere, through the dense clouds, and down to the 900┬░ F surface. An Orbiter (Pioneer 12) circles Venus to this day and has mapped its hidden surface by radar, imaged its changing cloud systems, explored its unique magnetic environment, and observed the interactions of the solar wind with a planet that has no intrinsic magnetic field.The four probes plunged into the atmosphere at widely separated locations in day and night hemispheres. They measured temperature, pressure, and density down to the planet's surface. They discovered diurnal changes in the upper atmosphere and found that at high altitudes Venus' atmosphere is cooler and at low altitudes much hotter than Earth's. The temperature below the clouds was found to be relatively constant at a given height everywhere on the planet. Instead of turbulence, unexpectedly stable atmospheric layers were found below the clouds.The probes charted vertical winds and determined the chemical composition of the atmosphere. It is mainly carbon dioxide and nitrogen but, unlike Earth, it has very little oxygen or water vapor. Rare atmospheric gases and their isotopes were detected and their concentrations were measured. Unexpectedly, there were high abundances of neon and of argon 36 and 38 isotopes, which leads us to conclude that Venus and Earth received different original volatiles from the solar nebula out of which the planets are believed to have formed.The ratio of deuterium to hydrogen is 100 times as large as that in Earth's oceans, which suggests that there has been a preferential escape of a large amount of hydrogen from Venus. This is evidence that Venus probably had a large quantity of water, perhaps as much as an ocean, sometime during its history. The ocean may have been lost because a "greenhouse" effect trapped solar heat in Venus' atmosphere so that the planet became too hot to retain water on its surface.The Orbiter's radar provided altimetry maps for nearly all of the surface of Venus, resolving features down to about 50 miles across. On these maps, scientists identified volcanoes that may still be active; continental areas with great plains and mountain ranges in which one peak rises 35,500 feet; island masses rising from global plains; rift valleys such as Diana Chasma, which is 9,500 feet deep; some craters; and extensive areas of global plains with relatively flat and monotonous surfaces. Key features on Venus have been and will continue to be named after women, e.g., Aphrodite, Freyja, Asteria, Atla, Ishtar, Atalanta, Phoebe, Themis, and Leda. Venus was found to be a planet that is closer to being a sphere than are Earth and other planets, as might be expected from its slow rotation, which is 242 times slower than Earth's.Pioneer Venus' radar altimetry data were used to select targets for subsequent U.S.S.R. Venus probes. Important international cooperation has been enhanced by exchanges of information about Venus.Sensitive and detailed measurements of spacecraft accelerations in orbit show that mountainous formations are less dense than the global crust, and that, as on Earth, they appear to be supported on a liquid interior.Movements of masses of the atmosphere, charted in observations made from orbit, revealed global winds of 220 mph at the cloud tops. These winds generally blow westward, with virtually no motions north or south.Electrical signals from Venus detected by Pioneer are possibly caused by lightning flashes in gas clouds arising from active volcanoes. If these emissions are not caused by lightning in such clouds they present a problem because there is no other terrestrial counterpart to explain them.The Orbiter travels in an elliptical orbit around the planet. This enables its instruments to sample various regions of the planet's ionosphere (the region of charged particles in the upper atmosphere) which is a thinner ionosphere than that of Earth. Venus has no magnetic field to shield it from the solar wind, but the wind itself generates a magnetic field.The induced magnetic field deflects the solar wind and gives rise to a bow shock and an ionopause (which has no terrestrial counterpart). The ionopause is the boundary between the ionosphere and the solar wind. The spacecraft showed that the ionopause exists on the night side as well as the day side of the planet,and it identified and mapped specific ionospheric regions: an ionosheath, a mantle, and a wake. Changes in the ionosphere and the particles and field environment surrounding Venus were recorded as solar activity, and the strength of the solar wind changed during the solar cycle. A new understanding of how a planet without a magnetic field interacts with the solar wind is being developed, and contributions to the possible explanations for some of the differences between Earth and Venus are being made. (Continue by clicking on the Pioneer (B) button.)</text>
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<text>(From "Space Pioneers and Where They Are Now," NASA EP-264, 1987. This publication was prepared at Ames Research Center and edited and authored by Earl J. Montoya (NASA Headquarters) and Richard O. Fimmel (Ames Research Center). The following is a continuation of Pioneer (A).) Outer Solar System PioneersScientists gave high priority to extending the exploration of the "outer" space frontiers. Early in the 1970s scientific descriptions of the outer parts of the Solar System still differed enormously because observations made from Earth were lacking details. There were many unknowns about the far reaches of interplanetary space beyond the orbit of Mars and about the very large and distant planets of the outer Solar System in which most of the matter and the angular momentum of the total system are concentrated.Between the orbits of Mars and giant Jupiter, the Asteroid Belt was known to contain many thousands of small rocky bodies, nearly all less than a few tens of miles in diameter and possibly including untold numbers of very small particles. There were doubts that spacecraft could safely cross this region. To do so was important to our finding out more about the outer giants, particularly so because to reach the more distant planets requires full use of Earth's orbital velocity around the Sun and a spacecraft trajectory directly through the heart of the asteroid belt. The gravity and orbital motion of Jupiter are then used to urge a spacecraft flying by that planet to the high velocities needed to reach other more distant planetsΓÇöSaturn, Uranus, and NeptuneΓÇöwithin reasonable times and with reasonable scientific payloads.The first outer-planet target for the Pioneers was Jupiter, giant of the system and almost a protostar, with its retinue of giant satellites. The design challenges for Pioneers 10 and 11ΓÇöprecursors to later missions by larger spacecraftΓÇöwere to explore the Jovian system and obtain the first closeup spin-scan images of the planet and investigate its enormous magnetosphere, the composition of the planet's turbulent atmosphere, and its internal physical structure. Radio signals had been traced as originating from Jupiter, implying that it had a large magnetosphere with intense radiation belts; the spacecraft had to survive this radiation environment.Despite its enormous size, 11 times the diameter of Earth, Jupiter is the most rapidly rotating body in the Solar System. From Earth we see light and dark bands crossing Jupiter's disk, an enormous Red Spot that has been observed for centuries, and rapidly changing weather features. We recognized the presence of hydrogen, helium, water vapor, ammonia, and methane in the planet's atmosphere, and we believed Jupiter to be a gas giant consisting predominantly of hydrogen in gaseous, liquid, and metallic form.The successful encounter of Pioneer 10 with Jupiter, and the meeting of all its scientific objectives, permitted Pioneer 11 to be retargeted in flight to fly by Jupiter in such a way that it was hurled on to intercept the majestically ringed planet Saturn. Pioneer 11's survival attested to the outstanding engineering and operational efforts that had gone into its design. The redirection and acceleration of Pioneer 11 toward Saturn required a tightly curved passage from south to north around Jupiter, enabling that second flyby to penetrate the deepest ever into Jupiter's radiation belt and to provide an unparalleled perspective of the giant planet's polar regions. This retargeting was aimed toward a Saturn flyby that would explore the feasibility of Voyager later making a safe passage by Saturn on its way to Uranus and Neptune.Saturn, slightly smaller than Jupiter and nearly twice as far from the Sun, is another giant consisting of so much gas that its density is less than that of water. The planet also has a retinue of satellites and an enormous ring system whose dynamics had intrigued mathematicians for centuries. Information about Saturn was even more sketchy than that about Jupiter. It, too, is a rapid rotator. It, too, has belts and spots. But these features are much less distinct than those of Jupiter. And beyond Saturn is the outer Solar System, stretching billions of miles into space; the realms of Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto, and of the solar wind blowing out toward a boundary referred to as the heliopause where the influence of the Sun ends and a spacecraft traveling fast enough would enter interstellar space and reach for the stars.Important discoveries were made by Pioneers 10 and 11, discoveries with far reaching consequences for future space exploration and for our understanding of the Solar System and of vast magnetospheres containing energetic plasmas that we cannot duplicate in laboratories on Earth. First, the myth of a hazardous asteroid belt was dispelled. The anticipated concentration of small particles did not exist. Spacecraft could safely reach Jupiter and use the Jovian gravitational slingshot to hurtle them to more distant planets.The Pioneers made discoveries about the distribution of particles causing the Zodiacal Light and the Gegenschein, glows in the night sky observed from Earth. They also mapped the background of starlight.At Jupiter, the Pioneers explored the giant planet's magnetosphere and found that it is disk shaped and bigger than the Sun itself. The magnetic field of Jupiter, 10,000 times stronger than Earth's field, is opposite in direction to Earth's field, its dipole moment is offset and tilted so as to cause a wobbling of the huge magnetosphere as the planet spins on its axis.The Pioneers discovered a ring current within the magnetosphere and radiation belts whose trapped electrons have an intensity 10,000 times Earth's trapped electrons, and its protons, 1,000 times Earth's. Jupiter's magnetosphere was also revealed as the source of high energy electrons observed everywhere that spacecraft have traveled in the heliosphere.The ratio of helium to hydrogen in the Jovian atmosphere was found to be 0.14, fairly close to the 0.11 ratio of the Sun. Close-up pictures were obtained of the belts and zones, of the Great Red Spot, and of the polar regions. A new understanding was obtained of the weather patterns on a giant, rapidly rotating planet with no solid surface.The heat balance was measured and showed that Jupiter emits 1.7 times the heat the planet receives from the Sun, indicating that heat is still being generated in its vast interior.At Saturn, Pioneer 11 found and explored another magnetosphere and made equally important discoveries. The suspected presence of a magnetic field was confirmed. It has a very small tilt and possesses the same polarity as the Jovian field, with a dipole moment about 540 times that of Earth's field. The magnetosphere contains corotating plasma and radiation belts comparable in intensity to Earth's but much larger in size. Rings and satellites were found to absorb particles and sweep them from the radiation belts.Closeup pictures obtained of the belts and zones showed them as narrower and more numerous than Jupiter's. Cyclonic spots were also recorded on the images, and high-velocity zonal winds were discovered. The atmosphere has thicker clouds having less contrast than those of Jupiter, presumably because Saturn's atmosphere is colder because of its greater distance from the Sun.As with Jupiter, the heat balance was measured and the measurement showed that Saturn emits 2.8 times the heat it receives from the Sun. One explanation is that helium is gravitationally separating within the atmosphere and the interior of Saturn and is releasing energy as it falls toward a rocky core and solidifies under the intense internal pressure.The vast ring system was imaged and more details were revealed than can be seen from Earth. The rings were also observed from behind the planet to reveal even more structure when back-lighted. An extremely narrow F ring was discovered, visible outside the outermost ring seen from Earth, and other extremely tenuous rings were detected by their absorption of particles from the magnetosphere. Before making its closest approach to the cloud tops, Pioneer showed that a spacecraft could penetrate the ring plane fairly close to the planet without being damaged. This was an essential precursor to later flybys of Saturn by a larger spacecraft which would be deflected to Uranus.New small satellites of Saturn were discovered. The imaging photopolarimeter discovered one optically and another was discovered by its distinctive sweeping effects on charged particles. The latter was the first discovery of a satellite by nonoptical means. The Pioneers Now and in the FutureAt the end of 1986, Pioneers 6, 7, 8, 10, and 11, and Pioneer 12, the Venus Orbiter, are all still operating and gathering data. The signal for Pioneer 9, which provided good data for 15 years after its launch, was lost in 1983. Pioneers 6 and 7 continue to gather solar wind and cosmic ray data inward and outward of Earth's orbit, while Pioneer 8 provides data about electric fields in space. Pioneers 10 and 11, heading out of the Solar System in almost opposite directions, are still pioneering as they explore the remotest regions of the Solar System for the first time in human history. They seek evidence of perturbations from possible remote planets beyond Neptune and Pluto, and from gravity waves originating outside the Solar System. They continue to map the heliosphere, observing the changes and characteristics of the solar wind, and are gradually accumulating data over a complete cycle of solar activity in the far reaches of space.These programs have produced a number of engineering and operational highlights as well as major scientific results. Special encoding of data permitted information to be transmitted over enormous interplanetary distances. Power generators were designed to provide lifetimes much longer than hitherto achieved. The spacecraft were made magnetically clean so they could measure low-level magnetic fields in space. Entry probes were developed to penetrate the hot, dense atmosphere of Venus and to sample that atmosphere, sending information directly back to Earth. An advanced tracking system arranged around the Pacific basin accurately followed the probes to measure windspeeds in the atmosphere of the distant planet. An antenna despin drive kept an antenna on the spinning Pioneer Venus spacecraft facing Earth for over 8 years without apparant wear. Communications were maintained over many years and great distances with round-trip light time reaching hours for the outer Solar System spacecraft. Scientists and engineers dedicated a decade or more of their professional lives to teams keeping in touch with these long-lived spacecraft.Pioneer 12 (Pioneer Venus) continues orbiting Venus and accumulating a wealth of information about the planet and nearby space, gathering much information about how the solar wind interacts with a planet lacking an intrinsic magnetic field. In the past 2 years, Pioneer 12 has made significant contributions to the study of comets by its observations of comets Encke, Giacaboni-Zinner, and Halley. It provided entirely new estimates of the rates at which water is released from comet nuclei by solar heating, and spin-scan images of the hydrogen corona of Comet Halley when it was closest to the Sun (i.e., during its perihelion passage). From the vantage of Venus' orbit, this Pioneer spacecraft was able to obtain information about comets that could not be obtained from a terrestrial viewpoint; in particular, it provided an opportunity to observe Comet Halley when it was most active. These unique observations of three different comets by one spacecraft benefitted from using the same instrument, an important capability for making comparisons among comets. Pioneer Venus will have the opportunity of observing two comets in 1987: Comet Wilson, a new comet discovered in August 1986, and Comet Encke, one of the most evolved comets known. Both will be observed for many weeks during the comets' most active periods. Together with the observations of Halley, a "middle-aged" comet, these measurements will provide a unique set of comet portraits from youth to old age.The primary scientific objectives of the extended mission of Pioneer Venus are to gain increased coverage in space and time as the orbit around Venus changes. The increased spatial coverage is unique to Pioneer Venus since most planetary spacecraft are locked into one orbit around their target planet. Initially, Pioneer Venus' orbit was held in a controlled configuration but, since the spacecraft completed its low-altitude sampling of the upper atmosphere, the gravity of the Sun is gradually changing the orientation of the orbit and providing additional viewpoints for observing Venus and its near-space environment.The nose of the bow shock and the near wake in the cavity behind the planet is where our understanding of the interaction of the solar wind with Venus can best be increased. All regions of this interaction can be investigated during the expected lifetime of Pioneer Venus. This extended mission will provide the first continuous measurement of solar-wind interactions with a planet over a complete cycle of solar activity. Pioneer Venus also describes concentrations of electrons and ions in the ionosphere of Venus, their energy distribution, and their motions over the solar cycle. The changing orbit will permit in-depth studies of the nighttime ionosphere.Periodic mapping of cloud-top features permits longterm studies of weather patterns on Venus. We can observe the formation and decay of major cloud systems, variations in the haze layers above them, and the changes to the amount of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere of the planet. A possible volcanic eruption pushing clouds of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere of Venus just before the arrival of the Pioneer Orbiter there in 1978 has important implications regarding the current state of Venus and whether it is still volcanically active.From such observations we look forward to gaining a better understanding of the photochemical and aerosol processes occurring at Venus, and how the zonal circulation is generatedΓÇöand a better understanding of planetary meteorology in general.Early in 1992, Pioneer Venus will enter a final phase of operations. Exhausted of the propellant needed to offset solar gravitational influence upon the orbital trajectory, the spacecraft will enter the atmosphere of Venus and be destroyed. For a brief period there will be sufficient propellant to keep the spacecraft orbiting almost as it was during the early part of its mission. The important difference will be that the periapsisΓÇöthe closest approach to Venus in each orbitΓÇöwill be located in the southern, instead of the northern, hemisphere. The radar can be turned on again to get mapping data about regions closer to the south pole, and confirm data from areas that were distant earlier in the mission. In situ measurements of the atmosphere can be made at altitudes below 140 kilometers as the periapsis descends lower into the atmosphere. The ionosphere can be sampled in the southern hemisphere. And while the nominal mission in 1978 corresponded with a minimum of solar activity, the reentry phase will be close to a solar maximum.Information being gathered by Pioneers 10 and 11 can be compared with that gathered by the Voyager spacecraft as they broach the outer regions of the Solar System and in different directions from those of the Pioneers. The magnetic field in the outer Solar System has been found to correspond fairly closely with a spiral field model developed in the late 1950s. The effects of solar maximum and minimum activities are being observed, with a minimum expected in 1987; also, the effects of the recent 22-year cyclical reversal of the solar magnetic field can be studied.The magnetometer and charged-particle instrumentation carried by the two spacecraft are recording the distribution of cosmic ray particles and have revealed that low-energy particles are trapped in a corotating structure, a kind of containment bottle. Four experiments are investigating cosmic rays in the heliosphere and how the various types and energies are affected by the solar cycle.Most cosmic ray particles from the Galaxy are excluded from the Solar System at periods of solar maximum activity, and the anomalous component of the cosmic rays is extremely sensitive to the solar cycle. Recovery of low-energy Galactic cosmic ray particles by the instruments aboard Pioneer began in 1984 as the solar activity declined. It is expected that the region of the heliosphere where modulation of the incoming cosmic rays occurs is at a distance of between 40 and 90 AU. It is highly probable that by 1989 Pioneer 10 will be the first spacecraft to reach the boundary of cosmic ray modulation. The question is whether there will be a clean shock between the heliosphere and interstellar space, or if there will be only a turbulent region. Many of the experiments carried by Pioneer 10 are capable of detecting this boundary. Finding out how cosmic rays enter our Solar System from the galaxy and how they are modulated is important to designing experiments to seek antiprotons so as to gain a better understanding of the building blocks of matter and their origins.The Doppler tracking data, as the Pioneers are passing beyond the previously known limits of the Solar System, have been used to check for gravity waves and for perturbations that might result from transplutonian planets or from a companion dark star. So far the results are negative, implying that if there is a planet beyond those presently known, or a dark star responsible for dislodging comets and causing periodic extinctions of life from Earth, it must be extremely distant at present, possibly far out along an elliptical orbit. While past influences upon the orbital paths of Neptune and Uranus appear to have been real, a companion dark star is ruled out by Pioneer 10 data as being the cause of such perturbations.The concept of pioneering spacecraft has paid enormous dividends over the three decades of their activities and explorations beyond the Earth. These relatively inexpensive spacecraft have opened up the Solar System to exploration by more complex machines, machines to carry costly experiments that we could not wisely send into space before we knew the nature of the questions to be asked and the nature of the data to be sought. The Pioneers provided the essential precursor missions. Moreover, they have proved, over the years, the value of relatively simple and highly reliable spacecraft capable of pushing with minimum risk into new and unexplored frontiers. With Pioneer-type missions we prepare the way for further in-depth studies, more detailed exploration, and hopefully increased wisdom concerning how we as a species can harmonize with the processes of nature. In this way we may discover new ways to apply our increased knowledge and understanding of planets, their evolution, and their interactions with the life-supporting Sun to solve current human problems affecting the terrestrial environment and to avoid inadvertent degradation of our future habitation. We should salute the people, past and present, of the Pioneer team and those who supported them. Their efforts have revealed new perspectives of our Solar System. These modern Pioneers have told us stories of discovery that will continue to stimulate our imagination relative to the new frontiers of space exploration. Their efforts have presented humankind with an intriguing "Pandora's Box" of discoveries, results, and mysteries, whose interpretation will challenge the technical and scientific community and young students for many years to come. The Pioneer SpacecraftName Launch Date Mission StatusPioneer 1 11 Oct. 1958 Moon 72,765 mi. altitude onlyPioneer 2 8 Nov. 1958 Moon 963 mi. altitude onlyPioneer 3 6 Dec. 1958 Moon 63,580 mi. altitude onlyPioneer 4 3 Mar. 1959 Moon 37,300 mi. from Moon, entered solar orbitPioneer 5 11 Mar. 1960 Solar Orbit Entered solar orbitPioneer 6 16 Dec. 1965 Solar Orbit Still OperatingPioneer 7 17 Aug. 1966 Solar Orbit Still OperatingPioneer 8 13 Dec. 1967 Solar Orbit Still OperatingPioneer 9 8 Nov. 1968 Solar Orbit Signal lost in 1983Pioneer E 7 Aug. 1969 Solar Orbit Launch failurePioneer 10 2 Mar. 1972 Jupiter Still operating in outer Solar SystemPioneer 11 5 Apr. 1973 Jupiter Continued to Saturn and still operatingPioneer 12 20 May 1978 Venus Still operating in orbit around VenusPioneer 13 8 Aug. 1978 Venus Successful entry of four probes and bus into atmosphere of Venus Pioneer FirstsFirst U.S. spacecraft to pass the Moon and enter solar orbit(Pioneer 4)First spacecraft to travel through the asteroid belt(Pioneer 11)First spacecraft to measure integrated starlight from the Galaxy free of Zodiacal Light (Pioneer 10)Discovery that the Gegenschein is not associated with Earth (Pioneer 10)First spacecraft to fly by Jupiter (Pioneer 10) and Saturn (Pioneer 11 )First spacecraft images of the large Jovian satellites(Pioneer 10)Discovery of an ionosphere on Jupiter's satellite Io(Pioneer 10)Discovery of a hydrogen torus surrounding Jupiter(Pioneer 10)Discovery that Saturn's rings and satellites sweep particles from the magnetosphere(Pioneer 11)Discovery of additional rings and satellites of Saturn(Pioneer 11)First observation of back-lighted rings of Saturn(Pioneer 11)Discovery of particles in the ring gaps seen from Earth(Pioneer 11)First image showing the featureless atmosphere of Titan, Saturn's largest satellite(Pioneer 11)First polarization measurement of Titan's atmosphere over a wide range of phase angles (Pioneer 11)First mapping of outer planet magnetospheres (Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11)Discovery of Saturn's magnetic field and magnetosphere (Pioneer 11)Mapping of corotating streams of particles from the Sun into the outer Solar System and identification of interplanetary acceleration processes (Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11)Mapping of the tightly wound solar magnetic field and discovery of a warped current sheet (Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11)First detection of helium atoms entering Solar System from the Galaxy (Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11)First spacecraft to leave the known Solar System(Pioneer 10)First spacecraft to carry messages to extraterrestrials(Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11)First simultaneous multiprobe entries of Venus' atmosphere (Pioneer 13)First topographic maps of cloud-shrouded Venus identifying continental masses, high and low points, and general shape of the planet (Pioneer 12)First synoptic observations of cloud patterns on Venus over a Venus year (Pioneer 12)Discovery of polar collar and polar dipole feature on Venus (Pioneer 12)Observations of solar wind interactions with Venus over a complete solar cycle (Pioneer 12)First spacecraft observations of comet near perihelion(Pioneer 12)First observations of three comets by one spacecraft(Pioneer 12)</text>
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<text>* NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center published a paper on the design of a lunar lander based on scientific theories of how much dust is on the surface. Some scientists predicted a ten foot deep dust layer, while others foresaw very little dust. The vehicle must safely deal with all views (1961). (From "Chariots for Apollo," Brooks, p. 99.) </text>
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<text>* First hand-launched satellite deployed into orbit. Astronaut Sherwood Spring deployed Advanced Autopilot Radar target satellite from STS-61B Space Shuttle Atlantis' cargo bay. Satellite continued to orbit Earth for more than a year (1985).* Enos, a chimp, was the first American to orbit the Earth (1961).</text>
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<text>* Huygens recorded first markings on Mars (1659).* Space Shuttle (STS-9) carried the first Spacelab module to orbit (1983).* First HAM (amateur) radio broadcast originating from space by STS-9 astronaut/Ham Owen Garriott, W5LFL (1983). (Click on Ham Radio button above for more.)</text>
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<text>In the drawing Huygens correctly indicated the presence of the great dark area of Syrtis Major. He also drew the south polar cap. Because his telescope inverted the image, he sketched the south polar cap as a north polar cap. ("National Geographic," VOYAGE TO THE PLANETS, Kenneth F. Weaver, August, 1970, p. 166.)</text>
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<text>(From NASA Educational Brief, EB-89-1, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C.) AMATEUR RADIO IN SPACE Past Flights for Ham RadioOn November 28, 1983, STS-9 was launched carrying mission specialist Owen Garriott, call sign W5LFL, and his ham radio into orbit. For ten days the Space Shuttle Co/umbia streaked through the skies, and for the last seven of those days, hams around the world were sent emotionally into orbit when they heard Dr. Garriott's voice break their squelches calling Earth-bound stations. But it was just the beginning. Amateur Radio had moved into its newest frontier, and it was there to stay.Lance Collister, WA1JXN, of Frenchtown, Montana, became the first Amateur Radio operator to work an astronaut-ham orbiting the world. He was far from the last. More than 300 calls were logged by Garriott on his ten-day journey. These calls ranged from classrooms of children to King Hussein of Jordan. Garriott was even patched into the Capcom at NASA's Mission Control Center to demonstrate the utility of the ham system operating as a backup to some of the space shuttle's communication systems.Dr. Garriott had been interested in carrying a ham radio into space since his Skylab mission in the early 1970s, but the plan to do so came too late in the development of the program, and so it was rejected.Space Shuttle flights presented another opportunity. The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) and the Amateur Radio Satellite Corporation (AMSAT) jointly requested that NASA supply a small transceiver to be carried by Garriott on STS-9. NASA accepted the proposal with the stipulation that the activity would not interfere with mission activities and that safety requirements would be met.All ham radio operation for STS-9 was in the Amateur Radio 2-meter band (144-148 MHz). Dr. Garriott's transceiver had the capacity to transmit and receive on channels 20-kHz apart. To simplify procedure, Dr. Garriott transmitted on only one or two frequencies to make it easier to locate him. He received on 10 to 20 different frequencies so hams could spread out across the band and not pile up on one frequency.As Columbia approached the portion of the ground track where Amateur Radio operations were planned, Dr. Garriott called and listened on alternate minutes.He transmitted continuously for one minute, beginning on the even minutes, and received continuously for one minute, beginning on the odd minutes.The second ham radio transmission from space came on the Challenger STS 51-F mission, and a new dimension was added to the already proven techniques used on STS-9. Working with a small group of NASA hams, mission specialist Tony England developed the idea of adding a repeater with a two-meter input and a ten-meter output that also would have the capability for slow-scan TV (SSTV) uplink and downlink. The Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX) on STS 51-F would determine if TV images could be sent and monitored in space.A system was designed to comprise an MX 300 series transceiver from the Motorola ARC in Fort Lauderdale, Florida; a Panasonic TV monitor, camera and cooling fans; Abbott-Transistor's dc-to-dc power converters; and a ROBOT scan converter. An Amateur Radio group at the NASA Lewis Research Center came up with the buffer amplifier required to provide the proper interface between the scan converter and the shuttle's video system. It allowed images from the Challenger cameras to be selected in addition to the small, hand-held camera in the SAREX package.Many of the unit's capabilities not needed for the flight were deleted. But, in order to accommodate the maximum number of SSTV hams worldwide, the capability to allow a special automatic sequence of frame speeds was added.The software was designed to provide two red frames followed by one green frame, one blue frame, a low-resolution color image, and a high-resolution color image, concluding with a carrier wave (CW) identification, W00RE/CHALLENGER.During the flight, 130 independent voice contacts were established including one from an automobile ham radio. In order to generate enthusiasm for this project and ham radio in general, young people had been encouraged to take part in the communication. Youth groups that participated included Scouts, Civil Air Patrol and the Young Astronaut Program.In addition to the voice contacts, there were 10 exchanges involving SSTV signals monitored by the shuttle ham station. The first SSTV image monitored by Tony England,the first TV watched in space, was a picture of his wife, Kathi.Amateur Radio in Space AgainThere are currently two flights scheduled to continue Amateur Radio experiments in space. Payload specialist Ron Parise, WA4SIR, will fly on STS-35 and Ken Cameron, KB5AWP, will pilot STS-37. These missions will demonstrate the unique capability of packet radio to collect and disseminate a high volume of stored messages to and from orbit. Packet is a digital transmission technique becoming increasingly popular with Radio Amateurs. Because of high capacity of the mode and the fact that the proposed SAREX-II will permit operation without an astronaut present, it is conservatively estimated that more Amateur stations will be contacted using this mode than the total contacts in both of the previous missions.The scheduled flights will also demonstrate the capability of providing a television uplink to manned spacecraft using a broadcast-standard transmission format which has never been done on U.S. manned missions. Amateur Radio operators hope to use this uplink to carry live video from crew members' families to the Shuttle.In addition, these experiments will show that Amateur Radio operations can proceed for virtually the entire Shuttle mission without adversely impacting other activities. This will be possible because the modifications being made to SAREX involve a new antenna that can be left in place without affecting other in-orbit activities, as well as the automatic operating capability associated with packet operation.These missions will provide another opportunity for the public, especially school children, to become directly involved in the U.S. space program by witnessing demonstrations of amateurs communicating with the shuttle.Equipment ConfigurationsThe configuration for STS-35 (configuration C) consists of a hand-held transceiver, interface module, a payload general support computer (PGSC), spare battery set, window antenna, packet module, SAREX headset assembly, personal recorder, and the required cable assemblies. The packet module contains a power supply and a packet radio terminal node controller (TNC). The power supply provides power for the TNC and the hand-held transceiver. The TNC interconnects with a radio transceiver so that data to and from the computer is transmitted to and received from other Amateur Radio stations. This configuration is capable of operating in either the voice or data mode in communications with Amateur stations within line of sight (LOS) of the orbiter. This configuration can be operated in the attended mode for voice communications and in either the attended or automatic mode for data communications.The configuration for STS-37 (configuration D) comprises a low power hand-held frequency modulation (FM) transceiver, a spare battery set, an interface module, a SAREX headset assembly, an equipment assembly cabinet, a TV camera and monitor, a PGSC, and an antenna capable of being mounted in one of the orbiter's flight deck windows. The equipment assembly houses power supplies, an SSTV converter, a fast scan television converter (FSTV), a packet radio TNC and switches and displays necessary to control the equipment as well as connectors to connect it to other equipment in the configuration. The FSTV module contains a receiving radio frequency preamplifier and a video decoder that provides the National Television Standards Committee (NTSC) video for SAREX-II. This configuration communicates with Amateur stations within LOS of the orbiter in one of four modes, e.g., voice, SSTV, data, or FSTV. The voice mode is operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data, or FSTV can be operated in either the attended or unattended mode.All on-orbit SAREX-II operations are conducted in the two-meter (144 to 146 MHz) Amateur Satellite Service band utilizing FM with a nominal frequency deviation of 5 kHz.Ground EquipmentAn elaborate station setup is not required for making a two-meter contact. NASA, AMSAT, and the ARRL all requested that high power amplifiers be avoided to minimize interference. An effective radiated power of no more than 100 watts will give excellent results. A fixed antenna such as a turnstile or a single monopole (vertical) mounted above obstructions will eliminate the need for elaborate orbit tracking and pointing. The vertical is very desirable because it has a good radiation pattern at low elevations where the majority of the shuttle passes occur. High gain directional beam antennas require very accurate pointing and greatly increase the operating complexity because of the short duration passes.Accurate tracking and pointing data for your station location is best provided by a computer satellite tracking program. If you have a computer or programmable calculator and need a tracking program, write to AMSAT Software Exchange, Box 27, Washington, DC 20044. The orbital parameters required by these programs are broadcast on W1AW bulletins and AMSAT nets.QSL CardsSpecially designed QSL cards (post cards used by hams to confirm two-way contact or reception of signal) are available to anyone who sends a reception report of Amateur Radio operation from the shuttle. Nonamateurs can listen in on a ham receiver or monitor on scanners to qualify for the special QSL. Send all reception and confirmed contact reports to ARRL, 225 Main Street, Newington, CT 06111.The real key to making a contact is being in the right place at the right time and following proper procedures, because there will probably only be a single opportunity when the shuttle passes within your range.What is a "Ham" Operator?More than 1.5 million persons worldwide, including more than 400,000 Americans, are currently licensed Amateur Radio operators or "hams."Oddly enough, there is no universally accepted explanation of where the popular term "ham" originated. Various theories have been propounded and all generally discredited. The most likely explanation is that the term derives from the frontier day custom of referring to an unskilled or inept telegraph operator as ham-fisted. Regardless, it is a term in which Amateurs take great pride.The term amateur refers to one who engages in a pursuit as a pastime rather than as a profession. Amateur Radio is the personal use of short wave radio equipment for direct, worldwide communications on a one-to-one basis. Amateur Radio has been a source of communicating and technical skills, especially during emergencies, but hams never accept compensation for services they provide.LicensesEvery Radio Amateur must be licensed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). In order to obtain a license, a ham must pass examinations in radio theory, rules and regulations, and International Morse Code proficiency.There are Radio Amateurs from ages 8 to 80 and they qualify for one of five grades of licenses, each at progressively higher levels of proficiency. The licenses are Novice, Technician, General, Advanced, and Amateur Extra. Higher classes of licenses have additional operating privileges. The minimum license required to operate on the frequencies to the shuttle is Technician.Call SignThe Amateur's call letters are issued by the FCC at the time of obtaining a license. The first letter indicates nationalityΓÇöin the United States the first letters are A, K, N or W.There are several means of communicating with Amateur Radio in addition to Morse Code (radiotelegraphy) and voice transmission (radiotelephony). These include radioteletype, computer-data exchange, and fast scan and slow scan Amateur television.Organizations and PublicationsAMSATΓÇöRadio Amateur Satellite Corporation: founded in 1969, to provide satellites that can be used for Amateur Radio communication and experimentation throughout the world, and to disseminate information derived from such communications and experimentation. The AMSAT address is P.O. Box 27, Washington, DC 20044.ARRLΓÇöAmerican Radio Relay League: founded in 1914, as the hams' own organization; publishes a monthly technical journal, annual handbook, and is the representative body with the FCC. Send inquiries to 225 Main Street, Newington, CT 06111.The Amateur Radio Newsletter, The Westlink Report, Formerly Ham Radio Report, Poco Press, 11119 Allegheny Street, Sun Valley, CA 91352.Questions and Activities for the Classroom1. All Radio Amateurs must pass a proficiency exam in International Morse Code. Have your students research the history of this means of communication.2. Contact a local ham operator and arrange for a demonstration of Amateur Radio techniques. Determine when the shuttle will be making a pass over the area and listen for the Shuttle transmission.3. What is an Amateur Radio station and what equipment is essential?4. What are the differences in Amateur Radio and citizens band radio?5. Describe methods in which Radio Amateurs can provide a service in the public interest.</text>
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<text>* Earliest meteor photo taken (1885). The photo at left was taken of a meteorite weighing approximately 40 pounds which was found in Antarctica by scientists. </text>
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<text>* STS-61B launched (1985). Astronaut "Woody" Spring constructed the ACCESS tower while in orbit to test procedures for building the Space Station Freedom. * France became the third nation on Earth to put an A-1/Asterix satellite in orbit (1965).</text>
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<text>* First launch of a Soviet liquid-fueled rocket. The engine fuel was petrol, the oxidizer was liquid oxygen, and the thrust was 154 lb. It flew 262 feet up (1933).* First aircraft loop in America performed by exhibition pilot Lincoln Beachey (1913).</text>
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<text>* Apollo 12 returned to Earth, landing in the Pacific (1969).* The Soviet super-boost rocket exploded after reaching about 25 miles altitude (1970). (Click on the Energiya button aboveto examine the latest Soviet super-booster.)</text>
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<text>* Charles Lindbergh visited Robert Goddard and helped him obtain a $50,000 Guggenheim grant for the advancement of aeronautics. These funds were instrumental in advancing the cause of space exploration (1929).* Tiros II, a weather satellite, was boosted into orbit (1960).</text>
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<text>* The IRAS (Infra-Red Astronomical Satellite) ran out of Helium coolant for its infrared detector and became inoperative. The IRAS was launched on January 25, 1983 and stopped working on November 22, 1983. During operation, it discovered dust around the sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. (Click above for more information.)</text>
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<text> NASA FACTS, NF-139 "IRAS: Mapping the Infrared Sky" IRAS: MAPPING THE INFRARED SKYBecause our vision is tuned to the particular lighting conditions of our own planet Earth, we see only a few of the many "colors" of the universe. Most of the electromagnetic spectrum is invisible to the human eyeΓÇöradio waves, ultraviolet, x-rays, gamma rays and the infrared wavelengths just below the threshold of sight.Although the energy of radiant heat glows all around us, it was not until a simple, intuitive experiment by the astronomer Sir William Herschel in 1800 that it was recognized as a natural part of the continuous spectrum of electromagnetic energy. While experimenting with the heating properties of different colors, Herschel noted that his thermometer measured the highest temperatures when he placed it beyond the red region of a prism spectrum, in an area where apparently there was no light. He had discovered "calorific rays"ΓÇöwhat we know today as infrared.In Herschel's own century astronomers used thermocouples, devices that convert heat to electric current, to detect this invisible infrared radiation from space. The Moon was first observed in this way in 1856, and by the early twentieth century most of the bright visible objects in the sky had also been observed in parts of the infrared. By the 1960s, the same decade that saw a boom in radio, x-ray, and ultraviolet astronomies, infrared observers began to benefit from new techniques, particularly the use of supercooled (cryogenic) detectors. Infrared telescopes were moved to higher and drier locations, and observers lofted their sensors by balloon, rocket, and airplane above the infrared-absorbing water of atmosphere.A few preliminary surveys of the infrared sky, beginning in 1968 with the California Institute of Technology short-wavelength survey at 2 microns for northern latitudes, catalogued many new sources. A similar, though less complete, survey from a New Zealand observatory in the same year revealed some of the brightest infrared objects in the southem sky. These were to be followed in the 1970s by the U.S. Air Force survey with rockets at longer wavelengths, up to about 30 microns, and with the Naval Research Laboratory, the far Infrared Space Experiment which observed at the still longer wavelength of 100 microns. Until 1983, however, there was no attempt to take a complete inventory of the major infrared emitters in the universe. This is the task of the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), launched on January 25, 1983. An international effort involving the United States, United Kingdom, and The Netherlands, IRAS is performing the first all-sky survey in a wide range of infrared wavelengths with a sensitivity 100 to 1000 times greater than any previous work. At the end of nearly a year of observation from Earth orbit, IRAS data will be used to produce a comprehensive catalog and maps of significant infrared sources in the universe. The Infrared SpectrumThe electromagnetic spectrum is divided into several categories of radiation, each with different wavelengths. At one end are the low-energy radio waves with wavelengths up to tens of thousands of meters. At the other end are the gamma rays whose wavelengths are smaller than the diameter of an atom. The smaller the wavelength, the greater the energy of the radiation.Between these two extremes lies the infrared region, with wavelengths from one millimeter (the shortest radio waves) to approximately 0.8 microns (.0008 millimeters), the longest waves of visible red light. The familiar infrared heat photographs are made by films sensitive to only the shortest waves closest to visible light.Virtually everything radiates in the infrared. Astronomical objects generally emit their energy over a wide range of wavelengths, and the hotter an object is, the more its energy output is concentrated at the short end of the spectrum. Hot stars therefore appear blue (short waves) while cooler stars are red. When an object is not quite hot enough to shine in visible light it emits the bulk of its energy in the infrared, like a stove burner before it begins to glow red hot. Infrared astronomy is thus the study of relatively cool objects below about 6000┬░ Kelvin (10,000┬░ F) that astronomers believe account for a significant amount of the universe's total energy output.Aside from the ability to detect cool objects, there are other advantages to observing the universe in the infrared. Between the stars of our galaxy there is a large amount of cosmic dust that effectively blocks out light at visible wavelengths, because these particular waves are about the same size as the dust particles. The interstellar dust is especially thick in the plane of our galaxy, so that visible light coming from the Milky Way's center is reduced by a factor of ten billion by the time it reaches Earth. Not so with the longer waves of infrared, which are reduced by only one tenth. Because of this relative transparency, infrared astronomy is ideal for studying the bright and dense core of the Milky Way.In addition, certain changes in energy state within hot gases and interstellar clouds of molecules have their signature in the infrared spectrum. By studying emissions from these regions it is possible to reconstruct the type of chemistry taking place there.With all of this scientific information contained in photons of infrared light it is annoying, at least for astronomy, that after billions of miles of generally unimpeded travel from the far parts of the universe most of them are blocked just as they reach Earth. Water and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere absorb the bulk of infrared radiation from space. Only a few wavelengths make it through to the ground in narrow observational windows centered at 1.25,1.65, 2.2, 3.5, 4.75,10.5,19.5, 35, 350, and 800 microns. Even at these transparent windows there are problemsΓÇöthe air above us glows brightly in the infrared, so even on the darkest nights infrared astronomers must resort to techniques like nodding their telescopes back and forth to sort out sky "noise" from astronomical sources.The solution is to orbit an infrared telescope above the atmosphere where it is exposed to pure, unfiltered radiation and can survey the whole sky, north and south, even at wavelengths between the ground-based windows. This is the purpose of the Infrared Astronomical Satellite. The IRAS ProjectLike many of the ventures into space planned for the 1980s and 1990s, IRAS features international cooperation. The Netherlands Aerospace Agency (NIVR) supervised the design and manufacture of the spacecraft bus that supports and powers the main telescope, and the University of Groningen provided a Dutch Additional Experiment package.The Ames Research Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), both in California, developed the infrared telescope for NASA. JPL is also processing IRAS data into final infrared catalogs and maps. The United Kingdom contributes to the project through its Science and Engineering Research Council by tracking the satellite and receiving its radioed data.As an international project, the satellite is managed by a Joint IRAS Project Executive Group made up of representatives from the participating agencies, institutes, and industries. Similarly, the IRAS science team draws its 18 members from the three cooperating nations.IRAS was launched by a Delta rocket from the Western Missile and Space Center in California on January 25, 1983 and placed in a near-polar circular orbit (Florida launch sites are used for east-west orbits) at 900 kilometers (560 miles) altitude, well above the atmosphere but below the Van Allen radiation belts. The 1,076-kilogram (2,365-pound) cylindrical satellite is about the size of a passenger van, measuring 3.6 meters (12 feet) in length and 2.16 meters (7 feet) in diameter. Its main component, a 57-centimeter (22.4-inch) Ritchey Chretien-type reflecting telescope, has an array of infrared detectors mounted at the focal plane. At its base the telescope is attached to a Dutch-built spacecraft bus that contains all the electronic "housekeeping" equipment for computing, power distribution, tape recording, communications, and telescope pointing control. A large visor-like sun shade cuts down the amount of stray light reaching the telescope, and two solar panels catch sunlight for converting to electricity.As with infrared telescopes on Earth, the IRAS instrument's heat-sensitive detectors are kept at very low temperatures. But for the purposes of this highly sensitive survey, the telescope itself must also be super-cooled to prevent its infrared heat from interfering with the detection of very faint astronomical sources. For this reason, the optical assembly and detectors are surrounded by a dewar, or cooling vessel, shaped like a doughnut stretched in height. The vessel contains 475 liters (125 gallons) of extremely cold liquid helium, spread out in the near zero-gravity of space into a film on the walls of its tank. The tank is in turn mounted inside a main shell, but is separated from the outer shell walls by a vacuum layer to further reduce heat flow to the telescope, like a giant thermos bottle. Thick insulation at the telescope's base shields it from the warmth of the spacecraft electronics.Because of this cryogenic system, the first ever flown on an orbiting instrument, the temperature at the IRAS focal plane, where the infrared detectors are located, stays at a low 2┬░ K (-455┬░ F), or only two degrees above absolute zeroΓÇöthe lowest temperature theoretically possible and the point at which all molecular motion comes to a halt. This 2┬░ focal plane temperature is required for IRAS' great sensitivityΓÇöthe survey can detect objects in the universe as cold as 15┬░K (-432┬░F), sources whose energy is as faint as one million-trillionth of a watt per square centimeter by the time it reaches Earth.The same cryogenics that allow IRAS to perform its mission, however, limit its lifetime. The liquid helium boils off even in cold space at a slow, steady rate, escaping as vapor through pores in a stainless steel plug in the tank. This leak rate dictates the useful life of the satellite, which was estimated to be approximately 11 months at the time the IRAS survey began.The IRAS orbit was chosen with several factors in mind. First, the heat-sensitive telescope must always point more than 60┬░ away from the Sun and more than 88┬░ from the brightness of the Earth's limb, or edge. The power-producing solar panels must also receive sunlight at least part of the time. The satellite therefore follows a nearly polar orbit closely aligned with the Earth's terminator, or sunrise-sunset line. The orbit is Sun-synchronousΓÇöit shifts approximately one degree each day to keep the same attitude relative to the Sun as the Earth travels its seasonal journey. Horizon sensors on the satellite warn it away from bright objects and keep it looking at dark space. They also help in the computer-guided, gyro-assisted attitude control system. Star sensors are used to achieve a telescope pointing accuracy down to only a few seconds of arc.The purpose of all this caution and engineering is to maximize the amount of radiation striking the IRAS telescope's sensitive infrared detectors on each survey scan. There are 62 detectors in all, sensitive in four wavelength bands. Rectangular in shape, they average about the size of a medium-length printed word on this page. They work on the principle that exposure to infrared radiation reduces the electrical resistance of their crystals by a known amount, so that the amount of radiation reaching the telescope's focal plane can be read directly as an increase in current. The Band 1 detectors, observing at shorter wavelengths, typically reveal the emissions of hotter point sources such as stars. Band 4, on the other hand, observes cooler or more extended objects, such as dust clouds, with its longer wavelength sensitivity.Mounted with the array of detectors in the telescope's focal plane are three more instruments, known collectively as the Dutch Additional Experiment. They include two photometers and a low-resolution spectrometer. The spectrometer is used with the main telescope to obtain spectra for strong point sources emitting in the 7.4-23 micron range. This helps in their classification. For statistically measuring the distribution of infrared sources in areas of high stellar density, there is a short wavelength (4.1-8 microns) channel photometer, also used with the main survey telescope.In addition, another long-wavelength photometer maps the areas of high and low infrared radiation in large, extended sources by giving data on relative intensities. This instrument is not used while the survey is in progress, but requires a specific "pointed" observation mode. Surveying the Infrared SkyFollowing a two-week check-out of its telescope and operational systems, IRAS began history's first infrared survey of the entire sky on February 9, 1983. The first scan recorded infrared sources in the constellations Taurus and Hercules in the northern sky and Scorpius and Eridanus in the southern, among others, as the satellite traced a circle around the Earth.For the purpose of the survey, mission planners have divided the celestial sphere into overlapping banana peel-shaped segments called "lunes." Lunes are the areas sliced out between two great circles of ecliptic (as opposed to Earth) longitude, and they each cover 30┬░ of the celestial sphere. The telescope scans a thin (1/2┬░ field of view) segment in each of two lunes on every north-south orbitΓÇöfirst rising through one, then descending through the corresponding lune on the other side of the Earth.As IRAS scans the sky, the faint radiation from astronomical sources is focused onto the array of detectors at its focal plane. These detectors are arranged so that the energy from any source strikes two of each kind of detector at a time. The same segment of the sky is then rescanned on the next orbit to give a total of four data readings for each source in each of the four infrared channels. Then, later in the survey, the telescope returns to do another double scan of that portion of the sky, so that every area is covered at least four times (some even more), and every astronomical source has a possible eight detections overall in each IRAS waveband. This repetition is needed to make sure that the survey is thorough, and also to prevent transitory objectsΓÇöasteroids, comets, even glints of moonlightΓÇöfrom being wrongly interpreted as infrared sources in deep space. Orbit GeometryThe IRAS orbital path is closely aligned with Earth's sunrise/ sunset line, and shifts about one degree each day to maintain that position throughout the changing seasons. Solar panels acquire sunlight while the telescope (protected by a sunshade) points outward to dark space.The IRAS focal plane assembly includes 62 small rectangular infrared detectors, sensitive in four wavebands.IRAS circles Earth 14 times a day, once every 103 minutes, and its telescope is always pointed away from Earth and out at the dark sky. Only about 60% of its time will be spent on the survey, however, due in part to "noise" created by Earth's Van Allen radiation belts, which dip below the altitude of the IRAS orbit in a region centered over the south Atlantic ocean. Trying to conduct a sensitive survey in this region would be pointlessΓÇöprotons in the radiation belts would create too many false detector readings.So during these periods, the IRAS telescope is focused on specific astronomical objects that mission planners have targeted as the most interesting for observing in the infrared. Hundreds of these additional observationsΓÇöof unusual galaxies, bright infrared stars, and nebulaeΓÇöare done each week, not only when the turning Earth brings the south Atlantic under IRAS, but also when the satellite passes over the poles, where overlapping survey coverage is not needed as often as in other areas.Twice each day IRAS radios scientific data down to Earth as it passes over a receiving station at Rutherford Appleton Laboratories in Chilton, England. Two on-board tape recorders with a combined capacity of 900 million bits of information store the data while IRAS is surveying, then "dump" the previous half day's data at a rate of one million bits per second at Chilton. Engineering information on satellite operations is also sent down with the scientific data. Infrared Band Type of Detector Number Spectral Range IR Band 1 Silicon Arsenide 15 8.5 - 15 microns IR Band 2 Silicon Antimonide 16 19 - 30 microns IR Band 3 Germanium Gallium 16 4 - 80 microns IR Band 4 Germanium Gallium 15 83 - 119 microns 62 TotalAt the same time, instructions for carrying out the next half day of the survey are radioed up to the IRAS computers, after a team in England has determined that all spacecraft operations and data are normal. Only a preliminary check-out of the data is performed in England, whereas the full set of IRAS data is sent by communications satellite from there to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for extensive computer processing. IRAS and Infrared AstronomyAccording to modern theory, a star is formed from a cool cloud of interstellar dust and gas that is somehow triggered to begin condensing. The mutual gravitational pull of its particles causes the cloud to contract further and heat up. Eventually it collapses into a hot, dense sphere, and internal pressures and temperatures reach a point where nuclear fusion processes begin. A star is born.The unique contribution of infrared astronomy is that it can detect these proto-stars long before they "turn on" in visible light by sensing the heat they emit as they contract. The prototype for this kind of object, the Becklin-Neugebauer Kleinmann-Low source in Orion, was discovered by infrared astronomers in the mid-1960s. The nebula is about ten times the mass of the Sun, but has a temperature of only 600┬░K (620┬░F). IRAS should be able to locate proto-stars that are much smallerΓÇödown to the size of the SunΓÇöover much of the galaxy.Stellar "hatcheries" leave other infrared clues as well. Very young, hot stars, for example, emit ultraviolet light that breaks up the atoms in nearby clouds of hydrogen and leaves the gas ionized. Such clouds of ionized hydrogen are called H 11 regions, and are believed to mark the sites of ongoing star formation. They also appear at all IRAS survey wavelengths.IRAS will be particularly good at picking out these H 11 regions throughout the galaxy. In addition, the IRAS spectrometer should detect certain interstellar molecules, among them water and ammonia that appear widely throughout the galaxy as very cool clouds of dust and gas. These clouds of molecules also are thought to be associated with the birth of stars.By detecting, identifying, and showing the distribution of these dusty proto-stars, H 11 regions, and clouds of molecules, the IRAS survey will allow astronomers to estimate the rate at which stars are forming in our galaxy, and by extension, other galaxies in the universe.At the waning end of a star's life cycle it runs low on its own nuclear fuel and begins to redden and die. As it does so it may cough out clouds of material from the interiorΓÇöheavy elements formed from fusion processes deep inside the star. Dust can envelop the fading star so thickly as to block its visible light completely. Here infrared astronomy can contribute in two ways. First, since the dust is much more transparent at long infrared wavelengths, astronomers are still able to see infrared light from the fading star. Secondly, the surrounding dust is itself heated up by the star to reradiate its own infrared light. Because of this, IRAS can take inventory of the stars dying in our galaxy.The material ejected from these fading stars in turn resupplies the large clouds that will eventually become new stars. The dust is composed mainly of smoke-sized silicate grains, and these have characteristic signatures at specific infrared wavelengths. By mapping the galaxy-wide distribution of this silicate dust, IRAS will be an important key to understanding the ongoing natural processes of stellar birth, death, and the recycling of matter.Infrared also opens up an important region of the sky nearly invisible to optical astronomersΓÇöthe center of our Milky Way galaxy, located in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. With its ability to see through the thick dust in the plane of the galaxy, IRAS can map a previously unseen structure at its core, including further detail in the giant H 11 regions and molecular clouds that have already been observed there at radio and infrared wavelengths. Infrared sources and structure in nearby galaxies like the Magellanic Clouds will also be revealed in the IRAS survey.Perhaps most intriguing will be the information IRAS returns on certain unusual objects outside the Milky Way that astronomers know already emit large amounts of infrared energy.Quasars and Seyfert galaxies, for example, pour out unexpectedly large amounts of energy for their size at all wavelengths. Some galaxies are known to have particularly large excesses in the infrared, and the reasons why are not clear. The IRAS survey is able to catalog such unusual sources so that their energy output in the infrared can be compared with that at other wavelengths. Closer to home, the IRAS survey can observe many objects within our own solar system. Asteroids, especially, should appear in the survey by the thousands, and infrared data canhelp to determine their reflectivity, their surface composition, and even their diameters. Also visible to the sensitive detectors is the zodiacal light caused by sunlight reflecting from dust within the plane of the solar system. To map the distribution of this dust is to gain insight into how our planetary system was formed. The IRAS telescope avoids the bright planet Jupiter, however, because brightness is heat, and heat boils off the telescope's cryogenic helium faster than the desired rate.Approximately one year after IRAS ends its survey in space, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory plans to release the mission's final productsΓÇömaps of the infrared sky and a catalog of all major infrared sources, along with critical information on each one. This information will be available to the entire scientific community worldwide.The IRAS maps, when completed, will show a much different sky than our familiar array of constellations, a different sky even than the one astronomers know from previous infrared study. We can only speculate on the total number of new sources that will be discovered. It is even quite possible that IRAS will discover whole new classes of astronomical objects whose only signature is in the faint infrared radiation they emit.As we learn to open our electronic eyes to the many "colors" of the electromagnetic spectrum, we come closer to putting together all the clues, to understanding the great and deep complications of the universe. Classroom Activities1. Construct a three-dimensional model of the Earth, Moon, and Sun in space. Calculate the angular size of the Earth as seen from the 900-kilometer-high IRAS orbit. Then plan a strategy for surveying the entire sky in the fewest possible orbits, keeping in mind that the telescope must point away from the Sun, Moon, and Earth, and remembering the restrictions against observing when the satellite is over the south Atlantic.2. Using the sources listed in the bibliography below as well as other articles published in scientific journals, make a map comparing the fifty brightest known infrared sources with the fifty brightest visible objects in the sky.3. Perform the experiment by which Herschel discovered infrared radiation.4. Write a report based on preliminary IRAS findings published in such magazines as Science, Astronomy and Astrophysics, and Nature. Suggested ReadingG. Neugebauer and R.B. Leighton. "The Infrared Sky," Scientific American, August, 1968, pp. 50-60.G. Neugebauer and E.E. Becklin. "The Brightest Infrared Sources," Scientific American, April, 1973, pp. 28-40.C.H. Annett. "The Infrared Universe," Astronomy, October, 1981, pp. 74-79.David A. Allen. "Infrared, the New Astronomy," New York, K. Reid, 1975.</text>
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<text>* First human flight in a balloon was made by two Frenchmen in a Mont- golfier hot air balloon (1783).* The China Clipper was the first commercial aircraft to cross the Pacific(1935).</text>
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<text>* First time a plane exceeds 1,300 mph. The pilot was Scott Crossfield (1953).* Otto von Guericke, the inventor of nothing (a vacuum), born (1602).</text>
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<text>Apollo 12 Astronaut Alan Bean examines Surveyor III's television camera. The two astronauts walked down to the spacecraft from their own lunar module, which they had landed about 600 feet away. They removed the TV camera and the scoop so that scientists could study the effects on well-known materials of a 31-month lunar sojourn. A third spacecraft, Lunar Orbiter III, made the pinpoint landing possible by its earlier feat of photographing the site in exquisite detail.("Apollo: Expeditions to the Moon," NASA SP-350, p. 224.)</text>
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<text>(From "Apollo: Expeditions to the Moon," Charles Conrad, Jr., and Alan B. Shepard, Jr., Chapter 12, pp. 225-246.) OCEAN OF STORMS AND FRA MAURO (Apollo 12 and Apollo 14 Lunar Missions)Scientific exploration of the Moon began in earnest with the Apollo 12 and 14 missions. Four astronauts worked on the Moon in four-hour shifts, walking from site to site. The Apollo 12 astronauts carried everything: experiments, equipment, tools, sample bags, cameras. The Apollo 14 team had a small equipment cart, and some of the time it was a help. But the missions showed that a man in a pressurized suit had definite limitations on the rugged and perplexing lunar surface. It was more work than it seemed, and in the case of Apollo 14, medical advice from Earth ended one phase of activity. But the two missions produced a wealth of new scientific data and lunar samples, and both laid a firm foundation for the great voyages of lunar exploration to follow.The sky was cloudy and rain was falling on November 14, 1969, as the Apollo 12 crew prepared for launch. Half a minute after liftoff a lightning strike opened the main circuit breakers in the spacecraft. Quick action by the crew and Launch Control restored power, and Astronauts Charles "Pete" Conrad, Jr., Richard F. Gordon, and Alan L. Bean sped into sunlight above the clouds. "We had everything in the world drop out," Conrad reported. "We've had a couple of cardiac arrests down here too," Launch Control radioed back.Their destination was the Ocean of Storms. Four and a half days later, Conrad and Bean entered the lunar module Intrepid and separated from Gordon in the command module Yankee Clipper. Their landing site was about 1,300 miles west of where Apollo 11 had landed, on a surface believed covered by debris splashed out from the crater Copernicus some 250 miles away. The exact site was a point where, 31 months before, the unmanned lunar scout Surveyor III had made a precarious automatic landing. The Surveyor site was a natural choice: it was a geologically different surface, it would demonstrate pinpoint landing precision, and it would offer a chance to bring back metal, electronic, and optical materials that had soaked for many months in the lunar environment.Here is Pete Conrad's account of the mission:It was really pioneering in lunar exploration. We had planned our traverses carefully, we covered them, and we stayed on the time line. We had a real-time link with the ground, to help guide our work on the surface. Of course we had practiced alot beforehand, working with geologists in the field to learn techniques from them while they learned what we could and couldn't do in the lunar environment.Our first important task was the precision landing near Surveyor III. When we pitched over just before the landing phase, there it was, looking as if we would land practically on target. The targeting data were just about perfect, but I maneuvered around the crater, landing at a slightly different spot than the one we had planned. In my judgment, the place we had prepicked was a little too rough. We touched down about 600 feet from the Surveyor. They didn't want us to be nearer than 500 feet because of the risk that the descent engine might blow dust over the spacecraft.Our second important taskΓÇöand of course the real reason for going to the Moon in the first placeΓÇöwas to accomplish useful scientific work on the surface. We had to set up the ALSEP and its experiments; we had to do a lot of geologizing; and finally we had to bring back some pieces of the Surveyor, so they could be analyzed for the effects of their exposure.Al Bean and I made two EVAs, each lasting just under four hours; and we covered the planned traverses as scheduled. We learned things that we could never have found out in a simulation. A simple thing like shoveling soil into a sample bag, for instance, was an entirely new experience. First, you had to handle the shovel differently, stopping it before you would have on Earth, and tilting it to dump the load much more steeply, after which the whole sample would slide off suddenly.Little Clouds Around Your FeetAnd the dust! Dust got into everything. You walked in a pair of little dust clouds kicked up around your feet. We were concerned about getting dust into the working parts of the spacesuits and into the lunar module, so we elected to remain in the suits between our two EVAs. We thought that it would be less risky that way than taking them off and putting them back on again.On the first EVA, the first thing I did was to take the contingency sample. When Al joined me on the surface, we started with the experimental setups. We set out the solar wind experiment and the ALSEP items. We planted the passive seismic experiment, deployed and aligned antennas, laid out the lunar surface magnetometer, and took core samples. Some of the experiments started working right away as planned, sending data back. Others weren't set to start operating until after we had left.We were continually describing what we were doing; we kept up a stream of chatter so that people on the ground could follow what was going on if we were to lose the video signal. And we did lose it, too, soon after we landed. That was hard to take.One strange surface phenomenon was a group of conical mounds, looking for all the world like small volcanoes. They were maybe five feet tall and about fifteen feet in diameter at the base. Both of us really enjoyed working on the surface; we took alot of kidding later about the way we reacted. But it was exciting; there we were, the third and fourth people on the Moon, doing what we were supposed to do, what we had planned to do, and keeping within schedule. Add to that the excitement of just being there, and I think we could be forgiven for reacting with enthusiasm.Our second EVA was heavily scheduled. We were to make visual observations, collect a lot more samples, document photographically the area around the Ocean of Storms, andΓÇöif we couldΓÇöbring back pieces of the Surveyor III spacecraft. We had rehearsed that part with a very detailed mockup before the flight, and were well prepared.We moved on a traverse, picking up samples and describing them and the terrain around them, as well as documenting the specific sites with photography. We rolled a rock into a crater so that scientists back on Earth could see if the seismic experiment was working. (It was sensitive enough to pick up my steps as I walked nearby.) Anyway, we rolled the rock and they got a jiggle or two, indicating that experiment was off and running.Tan Dust on SurveyorWe found some green rocks, and some gray soil that maintained its light color even below the surface, which is not common, and we finally reached the Surveyor crater. I was surprised by its size and its hard surface. We could have landed right there, I believe now, but it would have been a scary thing at the time. The Surveyor was covered with a coating of fine dust, and it looked tan or even brown in the lunar light, instead of the glistening white that it was when it left Earth more than two years earlier. It was decided later that the dust was kicked up by our descent onto the surface, even though we were 600 feet away.We cut samples of the aluminum tubing, which seemed more brittle than the same material on Earth, and some electrical cables. Their insulation seemed to have gotten dry, hard, and brittle. We managed to break off a piece of glass, and we unbolted the Surveyor TV camera. Then Al suggested that we cut off and take back the sampling scoop, and so we added that to the collection.Then we headed back to the Intrepid. We retrieved the solar-wind experiment, stowed it and the sample bags in the Intrepid, got in, buttoned it up, and started repressurization. Altogether we brought back about 75 pounds of rocks, and 15 pounds of Surveyor hardware. We also brought back the 25-pound color TV camera from Intrepid so that its failure could be investigated.While we were busy on the surface, Dick Gordon was busy in lunar orbit. The Yankee Clipper was a very sophisticated observation and surveying spacecraft. One of the experiments that Dick performed was multispectral photography of the lunar surface, which gave scientists new data with which to interpret the composition of the Moon.After Al and I got back to Yankee Clipper following lunar liftoff and rendezvous, all three of us worked on the photography schedule. We were looking specifically for good coverage of proposed future landing sites, especially Fra Mauro, which was then scheduled for Apollo 13. That's a rough surface, and we wanted to get the highest-resolution photos we could so that the crew of the Apollo 13 mission would have the best training information they could get.We changed the plane of our lunar orbit to cover the sites better, and we also elected to stay an extra day in lunar orbit so that we could complete the work without feeling pressured. We took hundreds of stills, and thousands of feet of motion-picture film of the Fra Mauro site, and of the Descartes and Lalande craters, two other proposed landing sites.Meantime the experiments we had left on the lunar surface were busy recording and transmitting data. They all worked well, with one exception, and were really producing useful data. One unexpected result came from the seismic experiment recording the impact of Intrepid on the surface after we had jettisoned it. The entire Moon rang like a gong, vibrating and resonating for almost on hour after the impact. The best guess was that the Moon was composed of rubble a lot deeper below its surface than anybody had assumed. The internal structure, being fractured instead of a solid mass, could bounce the seismic energy from piece to piece for quite a while.The same phenomenon was observed at two ALSEP stations when the Apollo 14 crew jettisoned their lunar module Antares and programmed it to crash between the Apollo 12 and 14 sites.With every mission after Apollo 12, additional seismic calibrations were obtained by aiming the Saturn S-IVB stage to impact a selected point on the Moon after separation from the spacecraft. The seismic vibrations from these impacts lasted about three hours.Apollo 13 was supposed to land in the Fra Mauro area. The explosion on board wiped out that mission, and it became instead a superb example of a crew's ability to turn a very risky situation into a safe return to Earth.So the Fra Mauro site was reassigned to Apollo 14, because scientists gave that area a high priority. The following account is by Alan B. Shepard, Jr., the first American into space and one of the original seven astronauts.The Fra Mauro hills stand a couple of hundred of miles to the east of the Apollo 12 landing site. I was selected to command this mission, my first since the original Mercury flight in 1961. With me to the lunar surface went Edgar D. Mitchell in Antares, while Stuart A. Roosa was the command module pilot of Kitty Hawk.Choosing a Smoother SpotThe targeting data for the Apollo 14 landing site were every bit as good as the data for Apollo 12; but we had to fly around for a little while for the same reason they had to. The landing site was rougher, on direct observation, than the photos had been able to show. So I looked for a smoother area, found one, and landed there.Our first EVA was similar to those before; we got out, set up the solar-wind experiment and the flag, and deployed the ALSEP. The latter had two new experiments. One was called the "thumper." Ed Mitchell set up an array of geophones, and then walked out along a planned survey line with a device that could be placed against the surface and fired, to create a local impact of known size. Thirteen of the 21 charges went off, registering good results. The other different experiment we had was a grenade launcher, with four grenades to be fired off by radio command some time after we had left the Moon. They were designed to impact at different distances from the launcher, to get a pattern of seismic response to the impact explosions.While Ed and I were working on our first EVA, Stu was doing the photographic part of the orbital science experiments. One job was to get detailed photographic coverage of the proposed site for the Apollo 15 mission, near the Descartes crater.He was asked also to get a number of other photos of the lunar surface, in areas that had not been well-covered in earlier missions. Stu produced some great photos of the surface, rotating the command module Kitty Hawk to compensate for the motion of the image. He photographed the area around Lansberg B, which had been the predicted impact site of the Apollo 13 S-IVB stage. It was calculated that the impact could have produced a crater about 200 feet in diameter, and scientists wanted good picturcs of the area so they could search for the brand-new crater on the Moon.Stu also found them another new crater on the back side of the Moon. It was serendipity; he was shooting other pictures and suddenly this very bright, young crater came into view directly under Kitty Hawk. So he swung the camera around, pushed the button, and then went back to his original assignment.A Lunar RickshawEd and I worked on the surface for 4 hours and 50 minutes during our first EVA; after the return to Antares, a long rest period, and then resuiting, we began the second EVA. This time we had the METΓÇömodularized equipment transporter, although we called it the lunar rickshawΓÇöto carry tools, cameras, and samples so we could work more effectively and bring back a larger quantity of samples.Our planned traverse was to take us from Antares more or less due east to the rim of Cone crater. That traverse had been chosen because scientists wanted samples and rocks from the crater's rim. The theory is that the oldest rocks from deep under the Moon's surface were thrown up and out of the crater by the impact, and that the ones from the extreme depth of the crater were to be found on the rim.On our way to the crater, one of the first things Ed did was to take a magnetometer reading at the first designated site. When he read the numbers over the air, there was some excitement back at Houston because the readings were about triple the values gotten on Apollo 12. They were also higher than the values Stu was reading in the Kitty Hawk, and so it seemed that the Moon's magnetic field varied spatially.Our first sampling began a little further on, in a rock field with boulders about two or three feet along the major dimension. These were located in the centers of a group of three craters, each about sixty feet across. Like the bulk of the samples brought back, these were documented samples. That means photographing the soil or rocks, describing them and their position over the voice link to Mission Control, and then putting the sample in a numbered bag, identifying the bag at the same time on the voice hookup.Apollo 14 tried an experiment to do something constructive about the dust that plagued all of the missions. NASA engineers wanted to check out some of the finishes proposed for the Rover and other pieces of operating equipment. I had a group of samplesΓÇömaterial chips with different finishesΓÇöand dusted them with the surface dust, shook them off, and then brushed one set to try to determine the abrasive effects, if any, of such dust removal. The other set was left unbrushed as a control sample. All this was of course recorded with the closeup camera.The mapped traverse was to take us nearly directly to the rim of Cone crater, a feature about 1,000 feet in diameter. As we approached, the boulders got larger, up to four and five feet in size. And at this time, the going started to get rough for us. The terrain became more steep as we approached the rim, and the increased grade accentuated the difficulty of walking in soft dust.The Hunt for the Rim of ConeAnother problem was that the ruggedness and unevenness of the terrain made it very hard to navigate by landmarks, which is the way a man on foot gets around. Ed and I had difficulty in agreeing on the way to Cone, just how far we had traveled, and where we were. We did some more sampling, and then moved on toward Cone, into terrain that had almost continuous undulations, and very small flat areas. Soon after that, the surface began to slope upward even more steeply, and it gave us the feeling that we were starting the last climb to the rim of Cone. We passed a rock which had a lot of glass in it, and reported to Houston that it was too big to pick up.We continued, changing our suit cooling rates to match our increased work output as we climbed, and stopping a couple of times briefly to rest. For a while, we picked up the cart and carried it, preferring to move this way because it was a little faster.And then came what had to be one of the most frustrating experiences on the traverse. We thought we were nearing the rim of Cone, only to find we were at another and much smaller crater still some distance from Cone. At that point, I radioed Houston that our positions were doubtful, and that there was probably quite a way to go yet to reach Cone.About then, there was a general concurrence that maybe that was about as far as we should go, even though Ed protested that we really ought to press on and look into Cone crater. But in the end, we stopped our traverse short of the lip and turned for the walk back to Antares.Later estimates indicated we were perhaps only 30 feet or so below the rim of the crater, and yet we were just not able to define it in that undulating and rough country.One of the rocks we sampled in that area was a white breccia (a rock made up of pieces of stone embedded in a matrix). The white coloring came from the very high percentage of feldspar that was in the breccia. That rock, and others in the area, were believed to approach 4.6 billion years in age.We stopped at Weird crater, for more sampling and some panoramic photography, and then continued the return traverse. At the Triplet craters, more than three quarters of the way back to Antares, we stopped again. Ed's job there was to drive some core tubes; I was to dig a trench to check the stratification of the surface. But the core material was granular and slipped out of the tube every time Ed lifted it clear of the surface. I wasn't having any better luck with my trenching, because the side walls kept collapsing. I did get enough of a trench dug so that I could observe some stratification of the surface materials, seeing their color shift into the darker browns and near blacks, and then into a surprisingly light-colored layer underneath the darkest one.That was it. Antares was in sight, as it had been throughout much of the traverse, and our long Moon walk was almost over. I went on past Antares to the ALSEP site to check antenna alignment because of reports from Houston that a weak signal was being received. Ed took some more samples from a nearby field of boulders.At that, our surface tasks were done, with the exception of recovering the solar wind experiment and getting back into Antares for the return flight. We had covered a distance of about two miles and collected many samples during four and one-half hours on the surface in the second EVA. I also threw a makeshift javelin, and hit a couple of golf shots. After liftoff there were still experiments left to do. The first of these was another seismic event, generated by the impact of the jettisoned Antares on the Moon. Again the Moon responded with that resonant ringing for some time after the event. Once we were on our way back to Earth, we did a series of four experiments in weightlessness. One was a simple metal casting experiment, to see what the effects of zero gravity would be on the purity of the homogeneity of the mass. The materials included some pure samples, and others with crystals or fibers for strengthening. As you might expect, the materials turned out to be more homogeneous under zero-gravity conditions. We measured heat flow and convection in some samples and, sure enough, zero gravity changed those characteristics also. We did some electrophoretic separations, which are techniques used by the pharmaceutical industry to make vaccines, in the belief that maybe zero-gravity conditions could simplify a complex and expensive process. Finally, we did some fluid transfer experiments, simply trying to pour a fluid from one container to another in zero gravity. The surface tension works against you there, and so it was much easier when the containers being used were equipped with baffles that the fluid could cling to, as it were.That was our mission. Our return was routine, our landing on target, and our homecoming as joyous as those before.I look back now on the flights carrying Pete's crew and my crew as the lead pioneering explorations of the Moon. Neil, Buzz, and Mike in Apollo 11 proved that man could get to the Moon and do useful scientific work, once he was there. Our two flightsΓÇöApollo 12 and 14ΓÇöproved that scientists could select a target area and define a series of objectives, and that man could get there with precision and carry out the objectives with relative ease and a very high degree of success. And both of our flights, as did earlier and later missions, pointed up the advantage of manned space exploration. We all were able to make minor corrections or major changes at times when they were needed, sometimes for better efficiency, and sometimes to save the mission.Apollo 12 and 14 were the transition missions. After us came the lunar rover, wheels to extend greatly the distance of the traverse and the quantity of samples that could be carried back to the lunar module. And on the last flight, a trained scientist who was also an astronaut went along on the mission.I'd like to look on that last flight as just a temporary hold in the exploration of space.</text>
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<text>( From "Spinoff 1991," NASA, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,1991, p. 16.)Launched on November 18, 1991, the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) is studyingthe origin and dynamics of the universe and seeking evidence to support the Big Bang theory that the universe began with a cataclysmic explosion.Operating in a polar orbit 560 miles high, COBE is mapping the diffuse infrared radiation, called the cosmic background, that bombards Earth from every direction; determining the detailed spectrum of the background radiation; and searching for the earliest formed galaxies. COBE data has enabled astronomers to create the first map of the distribution of nitrogen throughout the Milky Way galaxy. COBE's all-sky nitrogen survey, along with additional maps of carbon and dust distributions, provides information that may help scientists understand better the heating and cooling processes that take place in the universe. It is expected that COBE data will help clarify such matters as the nature of the primeval explosion believed to have created the universe, and the processes leading to the formation of galaxies. Goddard Space Flight Center is COBE project manager. </text>
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<text>* Surveyor 6 flew 8 feet above the Moon, which was the first liftoff from the surface of the Moon (1967).(Click on Surveyor button for more information.)* First commercial rocket launched (1988).</text>
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<text>(The following information appears on page 94 of "NASA, The First 25 Years 1958-1983: A Resource for Teachers: A curriculum project" published by NASA, 1983.) SURVEYORFollowing the Ranger hard landings, from 1966 to 1968, the Surveyor series was conducted to soft land unmanned spacecraft on the Moon, survey it with TV cameras, and analyze the chemical composition of the lunar surface.Five of the seven Surveyors were successful. They operated on the lunar surface over a combined time of 17 months, transmitted more than 17,000 pictures, and made analyses of surface and subsurface samples.Surveyor 1 May 30-June 2, 1966 Successful soft landing in Ocean of Storms; 11,237 pictures returned; found that the surface is firm and capable of supporting machines and astronauts.Surveyor 3April 17-20, 1967Landed in the Sea of Clouds and returned 6,315 pictures; first soil scoop; piece of the spacecraft brought back by Apollo 14.Surveyor 5September 8-10, 1967 Soft landing in the Sea of Tranquillity; returned over 19,000 pictures; first alpha scatter instrument analyzed chemical composition and found that the surface of the maria resembles that of terrestrial basalt lava.Surveyor 6November 7-10, 1967Soft landing in the Central Bay region; returned 30,065 pictures; first lift-off from lunar surface moved it ten feet to new location.Surveyor 7January 7-10, 1968 Successful soft landing on ejecta blanket adjacent to Crater Tycho; first combination of the three major experiments: TV, alpha scatter, and surface sampler; found that the highlands composition differs from that of the maria and is aluminum-rich.</text>
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<text>* Soviets launched their version of the Space Shuttle called Buran. The Buran (unlike the U.S. Shuttle) has no main engines. Buran depends only on the Energiya booster to lift it into orbit. (1989)* William Herschel born (1738).</text>
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<text>* HEAO-2 launched (1978). The High Energy Astronomical Observatory mapped all X-ray sources and discovered the most distant and brightest quasar.* The "Group for the Study of Reaction Propulsion" was founded in Leningrad in the Soviet Union (1931).</text>
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<text>* First deployment of commercial satellites (2) by Shuttle on STS-5. Crew displayed sign at left during mission (1982).* First photo of Earth's curvature made from balloon, Explorer 2, (over South Dakota) at an altitude of 72,000 ft., which was an altitude record (1935).</text>
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<text>* Zond 6 was launched for a lunar flight which circled the Moon and returned to the Soviet Union, using a skipping technique. The craft orbited within1,500 miles (2418 km.) of the Moon and returned (1968).* Soviets launched Luna 17 with the first remote- controlled moon rover (1970).(Click on Lunokhod button for more information.)</text>
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<text>* First flight of the Saturn 5 unmanned rocket on the Apollo 4 mission (1967). (Click on Saturn 5 button above for more information.) The Saturn 5's F-1 engine with its 1.5 million pounds of thrust is the most powerful single liquid propellant rocket engine ever produced. (Click on the F-1 button for more.)</text>
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<text>* Astronaut Anna Fisher became the first mother to fly in space aboard Space Shuttle Challenger (1984).(Click on STS-51-A and Anna Fisher buttons above for more information.)* Norman Rockwell, illustrator, died (1978). Rockwell's paintings included space program themes.</text>
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<text>* A "Bazooka"-like rocket was fired by Goddard in a demonstration of solid- fuel rockets in the city of Aberdeen, Maryland (1919). Goddard's rocket used a tube for launching. Perhaps, Jules Verne's rocket cannon (pictured at left) was an inspiration for Goddard's tube launcher.</text>
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<text>* Lunar Orbiter 2 was launched atop an Atlas-Agena D and photographed the moon to determine potential Apollo landing sites (1966).* British airman John Alcock born (1892). Alcock and Brown were the first to fly across the Atlantic nonstop in 1919. Their plane was a Vickers Vimy.</text>
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<text>* The first picture of a full side of Earth was taken from space (1967).* Cal Rodgers became first to fly by air across the United States (1911).(Click on button above for the exciting story.)</text>
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<text>(The following was written by Janet Ruff of Goddard Spaceflight Center and appeared in "Air and Space," Jan. - Feb. 1980. It is an excerpt from page 57 of "Of Wings and Things" by NASA Aerospace Education Specilists Norman O. Poff.) FIRST MAN TO CROSS THE UNITED STATES BY AIRPLANEFew men have met and conquered the obstacles that Calbraith Perry Rodgers faced in accepting the challenge of a coast-to-coast flight across the United States in 1911ΓÇöfewer than 8 years after the Wright brothers made the first successful flights in an airplane.William Randolph Hearst, publisher of the Los Angeles "Examiner," offered a $50,000 prize to the first pilot to cross North America by air in 30 days. "Cal" Rodgers planned to compete for the prize by flying a Wright EX biplane. He received financial support for airplane parts, fuel, mechanics, a special railroad train, and other expenses from the J. Ogden Armour Company. In return for this financial support, Rodgers agreed to advertise the Armour Company's Vin Fiz grape soda drink. He painted the Vin Fiz name on the tail and wings of his airplane.Rodgers took off from Sheepshead Bay, Long Island, NY, on September 17, 1911. Because of numerous delays, his transcontinental flight to Pasadena, California, took 49 days, too long to win the Hearst prize. Nevertheless, Rodgers did become the first to fly across the continent, reaching Pasadena on November 5, 1911. Today the restored "Vin Fiz" hangs in the Pioneers of Flight gallery at the National Air and Space Museum.Flight Notes: (Also quoted from "Of Wings & Things," p. 58.)Well-wishers cheered Cal Rodgers as he lifted off from a grassy field in Sheepshead Bay, Long Island, on September 17, 1911.Rodgers jammed newspapers under his vest for extra warmth. Cal Rodgers enjoyed a seemingly ever-present cigar between flights while mechanics made last-minute adjustments to the "Vin Fiz."Miraculously surviving several crashes, like one at Huntingdon, Indiana, Rodgers broke both legs and ankle, and a collarbone, cracked several ribs, and was thrown from the "Vin Fiz" 15 times during the cross-country flight.Cal Rodgers felt his transcontinental trip would not be complete until he actually flew to the Pacific Ocean. On December 10, 1911, he taxied the "Vin Fiz" into the ocean off Long Beach, California with his crutches lashed to the top of his lower left wing; Rodgers was still recovering from a recent crash.</text>
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<text>* Launch by Soviets of a Venus probe designated Venera 14. Earlier, Venera 13, a sister craft was launched. Both are intended to land on Venus (1981).* The search for a planet beyond Neptune was begun by David Todd at the U.S. Naval Observatory (1877).</text>
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<text>* Alabama woman was struck and bruised by a meteor (1955).* Panic in Europe over the approach and possible major impact of a comet(1679).* Sputnik 2 launched with a dog (Laika) as passenger (1957). To the left is a Russian drawing of the dog Laika. In the back- ground are the first three Sputniks.</text>
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<text>* Johnson Space Center "World's Longest Running Carpool" began (1971).* Chiron, farthest known asteroid, discovered (1977).* Fusion occurred for the first time on Earth (1952).* National Weather Service founded (1870).</text>
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<text>* Astronaut Ted Freeman was killed in a T-38 jet crash at Ellington Air Force Base near Houston, Texas (1964).* The Soviet Reaction Propulsion Institute was established (1933).* Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat visited the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas (1975).</text>
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<text>* Spacelab was launched aboard Challenger mission 61-A (1985).* Orson Welles broadcast "The War of the Worlds." * First launch of the Titan 34D by the United States Air Force (1982).</text>
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<text>* NASA/ERDA 100 kw windmill dedicated; largest in operation (1975). * Enos, the chimp, orbited the Earth twice (1961).* First attempt to launch the Russian space shuttle Buran was aborted on the launch pad as a result of a service gantry arm failing to retract (1989). correctly .(1988). (Click on Buran.) </text>
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<text>* French astronomer Arago drew Halley's Comet (1835).* An Ariane 2 rocket launch placed a direct-broadcast satellite in geostationary orbit (1988). (Gatland, p. 61). (Click on the Ariane button above for information about the rocket.) </text>
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<text>* French flyer Fernand Blanchard died in the crash of his Bleriot biplane, which resulted from a failure of the plane's controls (Paris, 1910).Early pioneers of aviation studied how birds fly to understand how to control a plane. Sometimes mechanisms failed causing loss of life. Click above for a discussion of airplane control.</text>
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<text>(Excerpt from "How an Airplane Flies," National Aeronautics and Space Administration Education Briefs for the Elementary School Classroom, ED-104/10-91.)Now, aside from being propelled by thrust and kept up by lift, an airplane, once in flight, can move in three directions, called axes. Each plane has a longitudinal axis (length), a lateral axis (width), and a vertical axis (height). To control the way it moves in these three directions, it has other parts called ailerons, elevators, and rudders.In the front or nose of the plane is the cockpit, or the pilot compartment where all of the controls to operate the plane are located. There is an instrument panel and radio equipment, with the rudder pedals on the floor. </text>
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<text> OCTOBER 25TH</text>
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<text>* First airplane passenger service between Los Angeles and New York began. The planes only flew in day- light, passengers slept in hotels during the nights (1930). (Key Dates, Winrich, NASA Lewis )* Jimmy Doolittle wins the Schneider Trophy Race for the U.S. in a Curtiss R3C-2 at 232.57 mph (1925). </text>
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<text>Besides cross country passenger service, commuter lines fly short distances. For example, business men used the above Bellanca Air Cruiser in the year 1930 to fly daily between Long Island and Wall Street in New York City.</text>
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<text> OCTOBER 23RD</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> A story about artificial satellites was published in the Atlantic Monthly (1862). A favorite topic for science fiction writers has been space satellite operations. Author Victor Appleton II created a type of satellite servicing vehicle, seen on the cover of his novel </span><span class="style2">Tom Swift and the Cosmic Astronauts.</span></text>
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<text> OCTOBER 19TH</text>
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<text>* Goddard's dream day (1899). On this day Goddard thought of the dream of space travel while climbing a cherry tree. He held fast to his memory of the day and celebrated it every year.</text>
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<text> OCTOBER 16TH</text>
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<text>* Halley's Comet rediscovered (1982). In 1531 the appearance of Halley's Comet was studied by astronomers, who discovered that the tail of comets always point away from the Sun, as shown in the drawing at left.</text>
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<text> OCTOBER 15TH</text>
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<text>* Evidence of another solar system announced (1986).Science fiction authors and artists often speculate on the reality of other solar systems containing life forms. Artist Julien S. Drupa in this 1939 "Amazing" cover, "Liners of Space," visualized a way of journeying to these new worlds.</text>
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<text> OCTOBER 14TH</text>
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<text>* The Bell X-1 piloted by Chuck Yeager performed the first manned supersonic flight (670 mph at 29,528 ft altitude) in history. The launch aircraft was a B-29 (1947).</text>
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<text> OCTOBER 13TH</text>
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<text>* Goddard launched a test rocket which reached 1700 foot altitude using a simplified combustion chamber. The rocket had a length of almost 8 feet and a diameter of a foot (1931). </text>
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<text>* First free flight of French "Piggy-back" aircraft (1947). * Fourth free flight test of the Space Shuttle Orbiter Enterprise by Col. Joe Engle and Cmdr. Richard Truly. Mock-up main engines are exposed to drag rather without a faring cover (1977).* First launch of Russian three-man spacecraft Voskhod (1964).</text>
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<text> OCTOBER 11TH</text>
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<text>* Apollo 7 launched to test Command and Service Module which will one day take men to the Moon. Crew consisted of Walter M. Schirra, Donn F. EIsele, and Walter Cunningham. The mission lasts more than 260 hours in Earth orbit (1968).(Click on Apollo 7 button above for added information.)*1st NASA spacecraft launched (1958).</text>
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<text> OCTOBER 10TH</text>
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<text>*Three German rocket experimenters are killed making black powder rocket fuel pellets (1933). (Gatland, p. 10)Exploration of space has resulted in deaths. In 1986, the explosion of Space Shuttle Challenger caused loss of life. Challenger's explosion is explained by clicking the button above.</text>
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<text>(The following information is presented in Chapters III and IV of "Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident," U.S. Government Printing Office : 1986 0 -157-336.)The AccidentJust after liftoff at .678 seconds into the flight, photographic data show a strong puff of gray smoke was spurting from the vicinity of the aft field joint on the right Solid Rocket Booster. The two pad 39B cameras that would have recorded the precise location of the puff were inoperative. Computer graphic analysis of film from other cameras indicated the initial smoke came from the 270 to 310-degree sector of the circumference of the aft field joint of the right Solid Rocket Booster. This area of the solid booster faces the External Tank. The vaporized material streaming from the joint indicated there was not complete sealing action within the joint.Eight more distinctive puffs of increasingly blacker smoke were recorded between .836 and 2.500 seconds. The smoke appeared to puff upwards from the joint . While each smoke puff was being left behind by the upward flight of the Shuttle, the next fresh puff could be seen near the level of the joint. The multiple smoke puffs in this sequence occurred at about four times per second, approximating the frequency of the structural load dynamics and resultant joint flexing. Computer graphics applied to NASA photos from a variety of cameras in this sequence again placed the smoke puffs' origin in the 270-to 310-degree sector of the original smoke spurt.As the Shuttle increased its upward velocity, it flew past the emerging and expanding smoke puffs. The last smoke was seen above the field joint at 2.733 seconds.The black color and dense composition of the smoke puffs suggest that the grease, joint insulation and rubber O-rings in the joint seal were being burned and eroded by the hot propellant gases.At approximately 37 seconds, Challenger encountered the first of several high-altitude wind shear conditions, which lasted until about 64 seconds. The wind shear created forces on the vehicle with relatively large fluctuations. These were immediately sensed and countered by the guidance, navigation and control system.The steering system (thrust vector control) of the Solid Rocket Booster responded to all commands and wind shear effects. The wind shear caused the steering system to be more active than on any previous flight.Both the Shuttle main engines and the solid rockets operated at reduced thrust approaching and passing through the area of maximum dynamic pressure of 720 pounds per square foot. Main engines had been throttled up to 104 percent thrust and the Solid Rocket Boosters were increasing their thrust when the first flickering flame appeared on the right Solid Rocket Booster in the area of the aft field joint. This first very small flame was detected on image enhanced film at 58.788 seconds into the flight. It appeared to originate at about 305 degrees around the booster circumference at or near the aft field joint.One film frame later from the same camera, the flame was visible without image enhancement. It grew into a continuous, well-defined plume at 59.262 seconds. At about the same time (60 seconds), telemetry showed a pressure differential between the chamber pressures in the right and left boosters. The right booster chamber pressure was lower, confirming the growing leak in the area of the field joint.As the flame plume increased in size, it was deflected rearward by the aerodynamic slipstream and circumferentially by the protruding structure of the upper ring attaching the booster to the External Tank. These deflections directed the flame plume onto the surface of the External Tank. This sequence of flame spreading is confirmed by analysis of the recovered wreckage. The growing flame also impinged on the strut attaching the Solid Rocket Booster to the External Tank.The first visual indication that swirling flame from the right Solid Rocket Booster breached the External Tank was at 64.660 seconds when there was an abrupt change in the shape and color of the plume. This indicated that it was mixing with leaking hydrogen from the External Tank. Telemetered changes in the hydrogen tank pressurization confirmed the leak. Within 45 milliseconds of the breach of the External Tank, a bright sustained glow developed on the black-tiled underside of the Challenger between it and the External Tank.Beginning at about 72 seconds, a series of events occurred extremely rapidly that terminated the flight. Telemetered data indicate a wide variety of flight system actions that support the visual evidence of the photos as the Shuttle struggled futilely against the forces that were destroying it.At about 72.20 seconds the lower strut linking the Solid Rocket Booster and the External Tank was severed or pulled away from the weakened hydrogen tank permitting the right Solid Rocket Booster to rotate around the upper attachment strut. This rotation is indicated by divergent yaw and pitch rates between the left and right Solid Rocket Boosters.At 73.124 seconds, a circumferential white vapor pattern was observed blooming from the side of the External Tank bottom dome. This was the beginning of the structural failure of the hydrogen tank that culminated in the entire aft dome dropping away. This released massive amounts of liquid hydrogen from the tank and created a sudden forward thrust of about 2.8 million pounds, pushing the hydrogen tank upward into the intertank structure. At about the same time, the rotating right Solid Rocket Booster impacted the intertank structure and the lower part of the liquid oxygen tank. These structures failed at 73.137 seconds as evidenced by the white vapors appearing in the intertank region.Within milliseconds there was massive, almost explosive, burning of the hydrogen streaming from the failed tank bottom and the liquid oxygen breach in the area of the intertank.At this point in its trajectory, while traveling at a Mach number of 1.92 at an altitude of 46,000 feet, the Challenger was totally enveloped in the explosive burn. The Challenger's reaction control system ruptured and a hypergolic burn of its propellants occurred as it exited. the oxygenhydrogen flames. The reddish brown colors of the hypergolic fuel burn are visible on the edge of the main fireball. The Orbiter, under severe aerodynamic loads, broke into several large sections which emerged from the fireball. Separate sections that can be identified on film include the main engine/tail section with the engines still burning, one wing of the Orbiter, and the forward fuselage trailing a mass of umbilical lines pulled loose from the payload bay.Tne Cause of the AccidentThe consensus of the Commission and participating investigative agencies is that the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger was caused by a failure in the joint between the two lower segments of the right Solid Rocket Motor. The specifc failure was the destruction of the seals that are intended to prevent hot gases from leaking through the joint during the propellant burn of the rocket motor. The evidence assembled by the Commission indicates that no other element of the Space Shuttle system contributed to this failure.In arriving at this conclusion, the Commission reviewed in detail all available data, reports and records; directed and supervised numerous tests, analyses, and experiments by NASA, civilian contractors and various government agencies; and then developed specific failure scenarios and the range of most probable causative factors.Findings1. A combustion gas leak through the right Solid Rocket Motor aft field joint initiated at or shortly after ignition eventually weakened and/or penetrated the External Tank initiating vehicle structural breakup and loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger during STS Mission 51-L.2. The evidence shows that no other STS 51-L Shuttle element or the payload contributed to the causes of the right Solid Rocket Motor aft field joint combustion gas leak. Sabotage was not a factor.3. Evidence examined in the review of Space Shuttle material, manufacturing, assembly, quality control, and processing of nonconformance reports found no flight hardware shipped to the launch site that fell outside the limits of Shuttle design specifications.Launch site activities, including assembly and preparation, from receipt of the flight hardware to launch were generally in accord with established procedures and were not considered a factor in the accident.5. Launch site records show that the right Solid Rocket Motor segments were assembled using approved procedures. However, significant out-of-round conditions existed between the two segments joined at the right Solid Rocket Motor aft field joint (the joint that failed). a. While the assembly conditions had the potential of generating debris or damage that could cause O-ring seal failure, these were not considered factors in this accident. b. The diameters of the two Solid Rocket Motor segments had grown as a result of prior use. c. The growth resulted in a condition at time of launch wherein the maximum gap between the tang and clevis in the region of the joint's O-rings was no more than .008 inches and the average gap would have been .004 inches. d. With a tang-to-clevis gap of .004 inches, the O-ring in the joint would be compressed to the extent that it pressed against all three walls of the O-ring retaining channel. e. The lack of roundness of the segments was such that the smallest tang-to-clevis clearance occurred at the initiation of the assembly operation at positions of 120 degrees and 300 degrees around the circumference of the aft field joint. It is uncertain if this tight condition and the resultant greater compression of the O- rings at these points persisted to the time of launch.6. The ambient temperature at time of launch was 36 degrees Fahrenheit, or 15 degrees lower than the next coldest previous launch. a. The temperature at the 300 degree shape than a cold O-ring at 30 degrees Fahrenheit. b. Temperature on the opposite side of the right Solid Rocket Booster facing the sun was estimated to be about 50 degrees Fahrenheit.7. Other joints on the left and right Solid Rocket Boosters experienced similar combinations of tang-to-clevis gap clearance and temperature. It is not known whether these joints experienced distress durin,g the flight of 51-L.8. Experimental evidence indicates that due to several effects associated with the Solid Rocket Booster's ignition and combustion pressures and associated vehicle motions, the gap between the tang and the clevis will open as much as .017 and .029 inches at the secondary and primary O-rings, respectively. a. This opening begins upon ignition, reaches its maximum rate of opening at about 200-300 milliseconds, and is essentially complete at 600 milliseconds when the Solid Rocket Booster reaches its operating pressure. b. The External Tank and right Solid Rocket Booster are connected by several struts, including one at 310 degrees near the aft field joint that failed. This strut's effect on the joint dynamics is to enhance the opening of the gap between the tang and clevis by about 10-20 percent in the region of 300-320 degrees.9. O-ring resiliency is directly related to its temperature. a. A warm O-ring that has been compressed will return to its original shape much quicker than will a cold O-ring when compression is relieved. Thus, a warm O- ring will follow the opening of the tang-to-clevis gap. A cold O-ring may not. b. A compressed O-ring at 75 degrees Fahrenheit is five times more responsive in returning to its uncompressed shape than a cold O-ring at 30 degrees Fahrenheit. c. As a result it is probable that the Orings in the right solid booster aft field joint were not following the opening of the gap between the tang and clevis at time of ignition.10. Experiments indicate that the primary mechanism that actuates O-ring sealing is the application of gas pressure to the upstream (high-pressure) side of the O-ring as it sits in its groove or channel. a. For this pressure actuation to work most effectively, a space between the O-ring and its upstream channel wall should exist during pressurization. b. A tang-to-clevis gap of .004 inches, as probably existed in the failed joint, would have initially compressed the Oring to the degree that no clearance existed between the O-ring and its upstream channel wall and the other two surfaces of the channel. c. At the cold launch temperature experienced, the O-ring would be very slow in returning to its normal rounded shape. It would not follow the opening of the tang- to-clevis gap. It would remain in its compressed position in the O-ring channel and not provide a space between itself and the upstream channel wall. Thus, it is probable the O-ring would not be pressure actuated to seal the gap in time to preclude joint failure due to blow-by and erosion from hot combustion gases.11. The sealing characteristics of the Solid Rocket Booster O-rings are enhanced by timely application of motor pressure. a. Ideally, motor pressure should be applied to actuate the O-ring and seal the joint prior to significant opening of the tang-to-clevis gap ( 100 to 200 milliseconds after motor ignition). b. Experimental evidence indicates that temperature, humidity and other variables in the putty compound used to seal the joint can delay pressure application to the joint by 500 milliseconds or more. c. This delay in pressure could be a factor ih initial joint failure.12. Of 21 launches with ambient temperatures of 61 degrees Fahrenheit or greater, only four showed signs of O-ring thermal distress; i.e., erosion or blow-by and soot. Each of the launches below 61. degrees Fahrenheit resulted in one or more O-rings showing signs of thermal distress. a. Of these improper joint sealing actions, one-half occurred in the aft field joints, 20 percent in the center field joints, and 30 percent in the upper field joints. The division between left and right Solid Rockter Boosters was roughly equal. b. Each instance of thermal O-ring distress was accompanied by a leak path in the insulating putty. The leak path connects the rocket's combustion chamber with the O-ring region of the tang and clevis. Joints that actuated without incident may also have had these leak paths13. There is a possibility that there was water in the clevis of the STS 51-L joints since water was found in the STS-9 joints during a destack operation after exposure to less rainfall than STS Sl-L. At time of launch, it was cold enough that water present in the joint would freeze. Tests show that ice in the joint can inhibit proper secondary seal performance .14. A series of puffs of smoke were observed emanating from the 51-L aft field joint area of the right Solid Rocket Booster between 0.678 and 2.500 seconds after ignition of the Shuttle Solid Rocket Motors. a. The puffs appeared at a frequency of about three puffs per second. This roughly matches the natural structural frequency of the solids at lift off and is reflected in slight cyclic changes of the tang-to-clevis gap opening. b. The puffs were seen to be moving upward along the surface of the booster above the aft field joint. c. The smoke was estimated to originate at a circumferential position of between 270 degrees and 315 degrees on the booster aft field joint, emerging from the top of the joint.15. This smoke from the aft field joint at Shuttle lift off was the first sign of the failure of the Solid Rocket Booster O-ring seals on STS 51-L.16. The leak was again clearly evident as a flame at approximately 58 seconds into the flight. It is possible that the leak was continuous but unobservable or non-existent in portions of the intervening period. It is possible in either case that thrust vectoring and normal vehicle response to wind shear as well as planned maneuvers reinitiated or magnified the leakage from a degraded seal in the period preceding the observed flames. The estimated position of the flame, centered at a point 307 degrees around the circumference of the aft field joint, was confirmed by the recovery of two fragments of the right Solid Rocket Booster. a. A small leak could have been present that may have grown to breach the joint in flame at a time on the order of 58 to 60 seconds after lift off. b. Alternatively, the O-ring gap could have been resealed by deposition of a fragile buildup of aluminum oxide and other combustion debris. This resealed section of the joint could have been disturbed by thrust vectoring, Space Shuttle motion and flight loads induced by changing winds aloft. c. The winds aloft caused control actions in the time interval of 32 seconds to 62 seconds into the flight that were typical of the largest values experienced on previous missions.Conclusionln view of the findings, the Commission concluded that the cause of the Challenger accident was the failure of the pressure seal in the aft field joint of the right Solid Rocket Motor. The failure was due to a faulty design unacceptably sensitive to a number of factors. These factors were the effects of temperature, physical dimensions, the character of materials, the effects of reusability, processing, and the reaction of the joint to dynamic loading. (The following is taken from a paper entitled "Secondary Factors Contributing to the Flaw That Caused the Space Shuttle Challenger Explosion." The paper was written for a technical writing class at the University of Texas in Austin by mechanical engineering student Matt Woodfill. August 14, 1991, Austin, Texas.) The Redesigned Solid Rocket Booster Seal/JointThe conclusion of the Presidential Commission's investigation of the Challenger accident was a series of recommendations to help assure return to safe flight of the shuttle. The most important recommendation was the redesign of the SRB joint/seal. Joints should be understood, tested, and verified. In this light, the joint design should provide for dimensional tolerances, transportation and handling, test procedures and inspections, environmental effects, recovery and reuse, as well as flight and water impact test loads. The new design must also include realistic tests that simulate as closely as possible launch conditions and all operating conditions during shuttle flight [Lewis, 1986]. The redesign of the joint/seal shown on the card added a third O-ring and eliminated the troublesome putty which served as a partial seal. Bonded insulation replaced the putty [Lewis, 1986]. A capture device was added to prevent or reduce the opening of the joint as the booster inflated under motor gas pressure during ignition. The third O-ring would be added to seal the joint at the capture device. The former O-rings would be replaced by rings of the same size (.28 inches thick) but made of a better performing material called fluorosilicone or nitrile rubber. Heating strips were added around the joints to assure the O-rings did not experience temperatures lower than 75 degrees Fahrenheit regardless of the surrounding temperature. Also, the gap openings which the O-rings were designed to seal were reduced to 6 thousandths of an inch from the former gap of 30 thousandths of an inch [Lewis, 1986]. Having discussed the redesign of the SRB seal/joint, John Thomas, manager of the redesign work at the Marshall Space Flight Center, stated, "We were charged in the redesign effort with two objectives." He continued, "The primary objective was to design a safe joint and the secondary objective was to utilize existing hardware if we could design a safe joint in that pursuit. I believe we have done that [Lewis, 1986]." ReferencesLewis, S. R., Challenger The Final Voyage , (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988)</text>
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<text>*Three German rocket experimenters are killed making black powder rocket fuel pellets (1933). (Gatland, p. 10)Exploration of space has resulted in deaths. In 1986, the explosion of Space Shuttle Challenger caused loss of life. Challenger's explosion is explained by clicking the button above.</text>
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<text>(The following information is presented in Chapters III and IV of "Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident," U.S. Government Printing Office : 1986 0 -157-336.)The AccidentJust after liftoff at .678 seconds into the flight, photographic data show a strong puff of gray smoke was spurting from the vicinity of the aft field joint on the right Solid Rocket Booster. The two pad 39B cameras that would have recorded the precise location of the puff were inoperative. Computer graphic analysis of film from other cameras indicated the initial smoke came from the 270 to 310-degree sector of the circumference of the aft field joint of the right Solid Rocket Booster. This area of the solid booster faces the External Tank. The vaporized material streaming from the joint indicated there was not complete sealing action within the joint.Eight more distinctive puffs of increasingly blacker smoke were recorded between .836 and 2.500 seconds. The smoke appeared to puff upwards from the joint . While each smoke puff was being left behind by the upward flight of the Shuttle, the next fresh puff could be seen near the level of the joint. The multiple smoke puffs in this sequence occurred at about four times per second, approximating the frequency of the structural load dynamics and resultant joint flexing. Computer graphics applied to NASA photos from a variety of cameras in this sequence again placed the smoke puffs' origin in the 270-to 310-degree sector of the original smoke spurt.As the Shuttle increased its upward velocity, it flew past the emerging and expanding smoke puffs. The last smoke was seen above the field joint at 2.733 seconds.The black color and dense composition of the smoke puffs suggest that the grease, joint insulation and rubber O-rings in the joint seal were being burned and eroded by the hot propellant gases.At approximately 37 seconds, Challenger encountered the first of several high-altitude wind shear conditions, which lasted until about 64 seconds. The wind shear created forces on the vehicle with relatively large fluctuations. These were immediately sensed and countered by the guidance, navigation and control system.The steering system (thrust vector control) of the Solid Rocket Booster responded to all commands and wind shear effects. The wind shear caused the steering system to be more active than on any previous flight.Both the Shuttle main engines and the solid rockets operated at reduced thrust approaching and passing through the area of maximum dynamic pressure of 720 pounds per square foot. Main engines had been throttled up to 104 percent thrust and the Solid Rocket Boosters were increasing their thrust when the first flickering flame appeared on the right Solid Rocket Booster in the area of the aft field joint. This first very small flame was detected on image enhanced film at 58.788 seconds into the flight. It appeared to originate at about 305 degrees around the booster circumference at or near the aft field joint.One film frame later from the same camera, the flame was visible without image enhancement. It grew into a continuous, well-defined plume at 59.262 seconds. At about the same time (60 seconds), telemetry showed a pressure differential between the chamber pressures in the right and left boosters. The right booster chamber pressure was lower, confirming the growing leak in the area of the field joint.As the flame plume increased in size, it was deflected rearward by the aerodynamic slipstream and circumferentially by the protruding structure of the upper ring attaching the booster to the External Tank. These deflections directed the flame plume onto the surface of the External Tank. This sequence of flame spreading is confirmed by analysis of the recovered wreckage. The growing flame also impinged on the strut attaching the Solid Rocket Booster to the External Tank.The first visual indication that swirling flame from the right Solid Rocket Booster breached the External Tank was at 64.660 seconds when there was an abrupt change in the shape and color of the plume. This indicated that it was mixing with leaking hydrogen from the External Tank. Telemetered changes in the hydrogen tank pressurization confirmed the leak. Within 45 milliseconds of the breach of the External Tank, a bright sustained glow developed on the black-tiled underside of the Challenger between it and the External Tank.Beginning at about 72 seconds, a series of events occurred extremely rapidly that terminated the flight. Telemetered data indicate a wide variety of flight system actions that support the visual evidence of the photos as the Shuttle struggled futilely against the forces that were destroying it.At about 72.20 seconds the lower strut linking the Solid Rocket Booster and the External Tank was severed or pulled away from the weakened hydrogen tank permitting the right Solid Rocket Booster to rotate around the upper attachment strut. This rotation is indicated by divergent yaw and pitch rates between the left and right Solid Rocket Boosters.At 73.124 seconds, a circumferential white vapor pattern was observed blooming from the side of the External Tank bottom dome. This was the beginning of the structural failure of the hydrogen tank that culminated in the entire aft dome dropping away. This released massive amounts of liquid hydrogen from the tank and created a sudden forward thrust of about 2.8 million pounds, pushing the hydrogen tank upward into the intertank structure. At about the same time, the rotating right Solid Rocket Booster impacted the intertank structure and the lower part of the liquid oxygen tank. These structures failed at 73.137 seconds as evidenced by the white vapors appearing in the intertank region.Within milliseconds there was massive, almost explosive, burning of the hydrogen streaming from the failed tank bottom and the liquid oxygen breach in the area of the intertank.At this point in its trajectory, while traveling at a Mach number of 1.92 at an altitude of 46,000 feet, the Challenger was totally enveloped in the explosive burn. The Challenger's reaction control system ruptured and a hypergolic burn of its propellants occurred as it exited. the oxygenhydrogen flames. The reddish brown colors of the hypergolic fuel burn are visible on the edge of the main fireball. The Orbiter, under severe aerodynamic loads, broke into several large sections which emerged from the fireball. Separate sections that can be identified on film include the main engine/tail section with the engines still burning, one wing of the Orbiter, and the forward fuselage trailing a mass of umbilical lines pulled loose from the payload bay.Tne Cause of the AccidentThe consensus of the Commission and participating investigative agencies is that the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger was caused by a failure in the joint between the two lower segments of the right Solid Rocket Motor. The specifc failure was the destruction of the seals that are intended to prevent hot gases from leaking through the joint during the propellant burn of the rocket motor. The evidence assembled by the Commission indicates that no other element of the Space Shuttle system contributed to this failure.In arriving at this conclusion, the Commission reviewed in detail all available data, reports and records; directed and supervised numerous tests, analyses, and experiments by NASA, civilian contractors and various government agencies; and then developed specific failure scenarios and the range of most probable causative factors.Findings1. A combustion gas leak through the right Solid Rocket Motor aft field joint initiated at or shortly after ignition eventually weakened and/or penetrated the External Tank initiating vehicle structural breakup and loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger during STS Mission 51-L.2. The evidence shows that no other STS 51-L Shuttle element or the payload contributed to the causes of the right Solid Rocket Motor aft field joint combustion gas leak. Sabotage was not a factor.3. Evidence examined in the review of Space Shuttle material, manufacturing, assembly, quality control, and processing of nonconformance reports found no flight hardware shipped to the launch site that fell outside the limits of Shuttle design specifications.Launch site activities, including assembly and preparation, from receipt of the flight hardware to launch were generally in accord with established procedures and were not considered a factor in the accident.5. Launch site records show that the right Solid Rocket Motor segments were assembled using approved procedures. However, significant out-of-round conditions existed between the two segments joined at the right Solid Rocket Motor aft field joint (the joint that failed). a. While the assembly conditions had the potential of generating debris or damage that could cause O-ring seal failure, these were not considered factors in this accident. b. The diameters of the two Solid Rocket Motor segments had grown as a result of prior use. c. The growth resulted in a condition at time of launch wherein the maximum gap between the tang and clevis in the region of the joint's O-rings was no more than .008 inches and the average gap would have been .004 inches. d. With a tang-to-clevis gap of .004 inches, the O-ring in the joint would be compressed to the extent that it pressed against all three walls of the O-ring retaining channel. e. The lack of roundness of the segments was such that the smallest tang-to-clevis clearance occurred at the initiation of the assembly operation at positions of 120 degrees and 300 degrees around the circumference of the aft field joint. It is uncertain if this tight condition and the resultant greater compression of the O- rings at these points persisted to the time of launch.6. The ambient temperature at time of launch was 36 degrees Fahrenheit, or 15 degrees lower than the next coldest previous launch. a. The temperature at the 300 degree shape than a cold O-ring at 30 degrees Fahrenheit. b. Temperature on the opposite side of the right Solid Rocket Booster facing the sun was estimated to be about 50 degrees Fahrenheit.7. Other joints on the left and right Solid Rocket Boosters experienced similar combinations of tang-to-clevis gap clearance and temperature. It is not known whether these joints experienced distress durin,g the flight of 51-L.8. Experimental evidence indicates that due to several effects associated with the Solid Rocket Booster's ignition and combustion pressures and associated vehicle motions, the gap between the tang and the clevis will open as much as .017 and .029 inches at the secondary and primary O-rings, respectively. a. This opening begins upon ignition, reaches its maximum rate of opening at about 200-300 milliseconds, and is essentially complete at 600 milliseconds when the Solid Rocket Booster reaches its operating pressure. b. The External Tank and right Solid Rocket Booster are connected by several struts, including one at 310 degrees near the aft field joint that failed. This strut's effect on the joint dynamics is to enhance the opening of the gap between the tang and clevis by about 10-20 percent in the region of 300-320 degrees.9. O-ring resiliency is directly related to its temperature. a. A warm O-ring that has been compressed will return to its original shape much quicker than will a cold O-ring when compression is relieved. Thus, a warm O- ring will follow the opening of the tang-to-clevis gap. A cold O-ring may not. b. A compressed O-ring at 75 degrees Fahrenheit is five times more responsive in returning to its uncompressed shape than a cold O-ring at 30 degrees Fahrenheit. c. As a result it is probable that the Orings in the right solid booster aft field joint were not following the opening of the gap between the tang and clevis at time of ignition.10. Experiments indicate that the primary mechanism that actuates O-ring sealing is the application of gas pressure to the upstream (high-pressure) side of the O-ring as it sits in its groove or channel. a. For this pressure actuation to work most effectively, a space between the O-ring and its upstream channel wall should exist during pressurization. b. A tang-to-clevis gap of .004 inches, as probably existed in the failed joint, would have initially compressed the Oring to the degree that no clearance existed between the O-ring and its upstream channel wall and the other two surfaces of the channel. c. At the cold launch temperature experienced, the O-ring would be very slow in returning to its normal rounded shape. It would not follow the opening of the tang- to-clevis gap. It would remain in its compressed position in the O-ring channel and not provide a space between itself and the upstream channel wall. Thus, it is probable the O-ring would not be pressure actuated to seal the gap in time to preclude joint failure due to blow-by and erosion from hot combustion gases.11. The sealing characteristics of the Solid Rocket Booster O-rings are enhanced by timely application of motor pressure. a. Ideally, motor pressure should be applied to actuate the O-ring and seal the joint prior to significant opening of the tang-to-clevis gap ( 100 to 200 milliseconds after motor ignition). b. Experimental evidence indicates that temperature, humidity and other variables in the putty compound used to seal the joint can delay pressure application to the joint by 500 milliseconds or more. c. This delay in pressure could be a factor ih initial joint failure.12. Of 21 launches with ambient temperatures of 61 degrees Fahrenheit or greater, only four showed signs of O-ring thermal distress; i.e., erosion or blow-by and soot. Each of the launches below 61. degrees Fahrenheit resulted in one or more O-rings showing signs of thermal distress. a. Of these improper joint sealing actions, one-half occurred in the aft field joints, 20 percent in the center field joints, and 30 percent in the upper field joints. The division between left and right Solid Rockter Boosters was roughly equal. b. Each instance of thermal O-ring distress was accompanied by a leak path in the insulating putty. The leak path connects the rocket's combustion chamber with the O-ring region of the tang and clevis. Joints that actuated without incident may also have had these leak paths13. There is a possibility that there was water in the clevis of the STS 51-L joints since water was found in the STS-9 joints during a destack operation after exposure to less rainfall than STS Sl-L. At time of launch, it was cold enough that water present in the joint would freeze. Tests show that ice in the joint can inhibit proper secondary seal performance .14. A series of puffs of smoke were observed emanating from the 51-L aft field joint area of the right Solid Rocket Booster between 0.678 and 2.500 seconds after ignition of the Shuttle Solid Rocket Motors. a. The puffs appeared at a frequency of about three puffs per second. This roughly matches the natural structural frequency of the solids at lift off and is reflected in slight cyclic changes of the tang-to-clevis gap opening. b. The puffs were seen to be moving upward along the surface of the booster above the aft field joint. c. The smoke was estimated to originate at a circumferential position of between 270 degrees and 315 degrees on the booster aft field joint, emerging from the top of the joint.15. This smoke from the aft field joint at Shuttle lift off was the first sign of the failure of the Solid Rocket Booster O-ring seals on STS 51-L.16. The leak was again clearly evident as a flame at approximately 58 seconds into the flight. It is possible that the leak was continuous but unobservable or non-existent in portions of the intervening period. It is possible in either case that thrust vectoring and normal vehicle response to wind shear as well as planned maneuvers reinitiated or magnified the leakage from a degraded seal in the period preceding the observed flames. The estimated position of the flame, centered at a point 307 degrees around the circumference of the aft field joint, was confirmed by the recovery of two fragments of the right Solid Rocket Booster. a. A small leak could have been present that may have grown to breach the joint in flame at a time on the order of 58 to 60 seconds after lift off. b. Alternatively, the O-ring gap could have been resealed by deposition of a fragile buildup of aluminum oxide and other combustion debris. This resealed section of the joint could have been disturbed by thrust vectoring, Space Shuttle motion and flight loads induced by changing winds aloft. c. The winds aloft caused control actions in the time interval of 32 seconds to 62 seconds into the flight that were typical of the largest values experienced on previous missions.Conclusionln view of the findings, the Commission concluded that the cause of the Challenger accident was the failure of the pressure seal in the aft field joint of the right Solid Rocket Motor. The failure was due to a faulty design unacceptably sensitive to a number of factors. These factors were the effects of temperature, physical dimensions, the character of materials, the effects of reusability, processing, and the reaction of the joint to dynamic loading. (The following is taken from a paper entitled "Secondary Factors Contributing to the Flaw That Caused the Space Shuttle Challenger Explosion." The paper was written for a technical writing class at the University of Texas in Austin by mechanical engineering student Matt Woodfill. August 14, 1991, Austin, Texas.) The Redesigned Solid Rocket Booster Seal/Joint The conclusion of the Presidential Commission's investigation of the Challenger accident was a series of recommendations to help assure return to safe flight of the shuttle. The most important recommendation was the redesign of the SRB joint/seal. Joints should be understood, tested, and verified. In this light, the joint design should provide for dimensional tolerances, transportation and handling, test procedures and inspections, environmental effects, recovery and reuse, as well as flight and water impact test loads. The new design must also include realistic tests that simulate as closely as possible launch conditions and all operating conditions during shuttle flight [Lewis, 1986]. The redesign of the joint/seal shown on the card added a third O-ring and eliminated the troublesome putty which served as a partial seal. Bonded insulation replaced the putty [Lewis, 1986]. A capture device was added to prevent or reduce the opening of the joint as the booster inflated under motor gas pressure during ignition. The third O-ring would be added to seal the joint at the capture device. The former O-rings would be replaced by rings of the same size (.28 inches thick) but made of a better performing material called fluorosilicone or nitrile rubber. Heating strips were added around the joints to assure the O-rings did not experience temperatures lower than 75 degrees Fahrenheit regardless of the surrounding temperature. Also, the gap openings which the O-rings were designed to seal were reduced to 6 thousandths of an inch from the former gap of 30 thousandths of an inch [Lewis, 1986]. Having discussed the redesign of the SRB seal/joint, John Thomas, manager of the redesign work at the Marshall Space Flight Center, stated, "We were charged in the redesign effort with two objectives." He continued, "The primary objective was to design a safe joint and the secondary objective was to utilize existing hardware if we could design a safe joint in that pursuit. I believe we have done that [Lewis, 1986]." ReferencesLewis, S. R., Challenger The Final Voyage , (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988) </text>
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<text>(The following information is presented in Chapters III and IV of "Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident," U.S. Government Printing Office : 1986 0 -157-336.)The AccidentJust after liftoff at .678 seconds into the flight, photographic data show a strong puff of gray smoke was spurting from the vicinity of the aft field joint on the right Solid Rocket Booster. The two pad 39B cameras that would have recorded the precise location of the puff were inoperative. Computer graphic analysis of film from other cameras indicated the initial smoke came from the 270 to 310-degree sector of the circumference of the aft field joint of the right Solid Rocket Booster. This area of the solid booster faces the External Tank. The vaporized material streaming from the joint indicated there was not complete sealing action within the joint.Eight more distinctive puffs of increasingly blacker smoke were recorded between .836 and 2.500 seconds. The smoke appeared to puff upwards from the joint . While each smoke puff was being left behind by the upward flight of the Shuttle, the next fresh puff could be seen near the level of the joint. The multiple smoke puffs in this sequence occurred at about four times per second, approximating the frequency of the structural load dynamics and resultant joint flexing. Computer graphics applied to NASA photos from a variety of cameras in this sequence again placed the smoke puffs' origin in the 270-to 310-degree sector of the original smoke spurt.As the Shuttle increased its upward velocity, it flew past the emerging and expanding smoke puffs. The last smoke was seen above the field joint at 2.733 seconds.The black color and dense composition of the smoke puffs suggest that the grease, joint insulation and rubber O-rings in the joint seal were being burned and eroded by the hot propellant gases.At approximately 37 seconds, Challenger encountered the first of several high-altitude wind shear conditions, which lasted until about 64 seconds. The wind shear created forces on the vehicle with relatively large fluctuations. These were immediately sensed and countered by the guidance, navigation and control system.The steering system (thrust vector control) of the Solid Rocket Booster responded to all commands and wind shear effects. The wind shear caused the steering system to be more active than on any previous flight.Both the Shuttle main engines and the solid rockets operated at reduced thrust approaching and passing through the area of maximum dynamic pressure of 720 pounds per square foot. Main engines had been throttled up to 104 percent thrust and the Solid Rocket Boosters were increasing their thrust when the first flickering flame appeared on the right Solid Rocket Booster in the area of the aft field joint. This first very small flame was detected on image enhanced film at 58.788 seconds into the flight. It appeared to originate at about 305 degrees around the booster circumference at or near the aft field joint.One film frame later from the same camera, the flame was visible without image enhancement. It grew into a continuous, well-defined plume at 59.262 seconds. At about the same time (60 seconds), telemetry showed a pressure differential between the chamber pressures in the right and left boosters. The right booster chamber pressure was lower, confirming the growing leak in the area of the field joint.As the flame plume increased in size, it was deflected rearward by the aerodynamic slipstream and circumferentially by the protruding structure of the upper ring attaching the booster to the External Tank. These deflections directed the flame plume onto the surface of the External Tank. This sequence of flame spreading is confirmed by analysis of the recovered wreckage. The growing flame also impinged on the strut attaching the Solid Rocket Booster to the External Tank.The first visual indication that swirling flame from the right Solid Rocket Booster breached the External Tank was at 64.660 seconds when there was an abrupt change in the shape and color of the plume. This indicated that it was mixing with leaking hydrogen from the External Tank. Telemetered changes in the hydrogen tank pressurization confirmed the leak. Within 45 milliseconds of the breach of the External Tank, a bright sustained glow developed on the black-tiled underside of the Challenger between it and the External Tank.Beginning at about 72 seconds, a series of events occurred extremely rapidly that terminated the flight. Telemetered data indicate a wide variety of flight system actions that support the visual evidence of the photos as the Shuttle struggled futilely against the forces that were destroying it.At about 72.20 seconds the lower strut linking the Solid Rocket Booster and the External Tank was severed or pulled away from the weakened hydrogen tank permitting the right Solid Rocket Booster to rotate around the upper attachment strut. This rotation is indicated by divergent yaw and pitch rates between the left and right Solid Rocket Boosters.At 73.124 seconds, a circumferential white vapor pattern was observed blooming from the side of the External Tank bottom dome. This was the beginning of the structural failure of the hydrogen tank that culminated in the entire aft dome dropping away. This released massive amounts of liquid hydrogen from the tank and created a sudden forward thrust of about 2.8 million pounds, pushing the hydrogen tank upward into the intertank structure. At about the same time, the rotating right Solid Rocket Booster impacted the intertank structure and the lower part of the liquid oxygen tank. These structures failed at 73.137 seconds as evidenced by the white vapors appearing in the intertank region.Within milliseconds there was massive, almost explosive, burning of the hydrogen streaming from the failed tank bottom and the liquid oxygen breach in the area of the intertank.At this point in its trajectory, while traveling at a Mach number of 1.92 at an altitude of 46,000 feet, the Challenger was totally enveloped in the explosive burn. The Challenger's reaction control system ruptured and a hypergolic burn of its propellants occurred as it exited. the oxygenhydrogen flames. The reddish brown colors of the hypergolic fuel burn are visible on the edge of the main fireball. The Orbiter, under severe aerodynamic loads, broke into several large sections which emerged from the fireball. Separate sections that can be identified on film include the main engine/tail section with the engines still burning, one wing of the Orbiter, and the forward fuselage trailing a mass of umbilical lines pulled loose from the payload bay.Tne Cause of the AccidentThe consensus of the Commission and participating investigative agencies is that the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger was caused by a failure in the joint between the two lower segments of the right Solid Rocket Motor. The specifc failure was the destruction of the seals that are intended to prevent hot gases from leaking through the joint during the propellant burn of the rocket motor. The evidence assembled by the Commission indicates that no other element of the Space Shuttle system contributed to this failure.In arriving at this conclusion, the Commission reviewed in detail all available data, reports and records; directed and supervised numerous tests, analyses, and experiments by NASA, civilian contractors and various government agencies; and then developed specific failure scenarios and the range of most probable causative factors.Findings1. A combustion gas leak through the right Solid Rocket Motor aft field joint initiated at or shortly after ignition eventually weakened and/or penetrated the External Tank initiating vehicle structural breakup and loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger during STS Mission 51-L.2. The evidence shows that no other STS 51-L Shuttle element or the payload contributed to the causes of the right Solid Rocket Motor aft field joint combustion gas leak. Sabotage was not a factor.3. Evidence examined in the review of Space Shuttle material, manufacturing, assembly, quality control, and processing of nonconformance reports found no flight hardware shipped to the launch site that fell outside the limits of Shuttle design specifications.Launch site activities, including assembly and preparation, from receipt of the flight hardware to launch were generally in accord with established procedures and were not considered a factor in the accident.5. Launch site records show that the right Solid Rocket Motor segments were assembled using approved procedures. However, significant out-of-round conditions existed between the two segments joined at the right Solid Rocket Motor aft field joint (the joint that failed). a. While the assembly conditions had the potential of generating debris or damage that could cause O-ring seal failure, these were not considered factors in this accident. b. The diameters of the two Solid Rocket Motor segments had grown as a result of prior use. c. The growth resulted in a condition at time of launch wherein the maximum gap between the tang and clevis in the region of the joint's O-rings was no more than .008 inches and the average gap would have been .004 inches. d. With a tang-to-clevis gap of .004 inches, the O-ring in the joint would be compressed to the extent that it pressed against all three walls of the O-ring retaining channel. e. The lack of roundness of the segments was such that the smallest tang-to-clevis clearance occurred at the initiation of the assembly operation at positions of 120 degrees and 300 degrees around the circumference of the aft field joint. It is uncertain if this tight condition and the resultant greater compression of the O- rings at these points persisted to the time of launch.6. The ambient temperature at time of launch was 36 degrees Fahrenheit, or 15 degrees lower than the next coldest previous launch. a. The temperature at the 300 degree shape than a cold O-ring at 30 degrees Fahrenheit. b. Temperature on the opposite side of the right Solid Rocket Booster facing the sun was estimated to be about 50 degrees Fahrenheit.7. Other joints on the left and right Solid Rocket Boosters experienced similar combinations of tang-to-clevis gap clearance and temperature. It is not known whether these joints experienced distress durin,g the flight of 51-L.8. Experimental evidence indicates that due to several effects associated with the Solid Rocket Booster's ignition and combustion pressures and associated vehicle motions, the gap between the tang and the clevis will open as much as .017 and .029 inches at the secondary and primary O-rings, respectively. a. This opening begins upon ignition, reaches its maximum rate of opening at about 200-300 milliseconds, and is essentially complete at 600 milliseconds when the Solid Rocket Booster reaches its operating pressure. b. The External Tank and right Solid Rocket Booster are connected by several struts, including one at 310 degrees near the aft field joint that failed. This strut's effect on the joint dynamics is to enhance the opening of the gap between the tang and clevis by about 10-20 percent in the region of 300-320 degrees.9. O-ring resiliency is directly related to its temperature. a. A warm O-ring that has been compressed will return to its original shape much quicker than will a cold O-ring when compression is relieved. Thus, a warm O- ring will follow the opening of the tang-to-clevis gap. A cold O-ring may not. b. A compressed O-ring at 75 degrees Fahrenheit is five times more responsive in returning to its uncompressed shape than a cold O-ring at 30 degrees Fahrenheit. c. As a result it is probable that the Orings in the right solid booster aft field joint were not following the opening of the gap between the tang and clevis at time of ignition.10. Experiments indicate that the primary mechanism that actuates O-ring sealing is the application of gas pressure to the upstream (high-pressure) side of the O-ring as it sits in its groove or channel. a. For this pressure actuation to work most effectively, a space between the O-ring and its upstream channel wall should exist during pressurization. b. A tang-to-clevis gap of .004 inches, as probably existed in the failed joint, would have initially compressed the Oring to the degree that no clearance existed between the O-ring and its upstream channel wall and the other two surfaces of the channel. c. At the cold launch temperature experienced, the O-ring would be very slow in returning to its normal rounded shape. It would not follow the opening of the tang- to-clevis gap. It would remain in its compressed position in the O-ring channel and not provide a space between itself and the upstream channel wall. Thus, it is probable the O-ring would not be pressure actuated to seal the gap in time to preclude joint failure due to blow-by and erosion from hot combustion gases.11. The sealing characteristics of the Solid Rocket Booster O-rings are enhanced by timely application of motor pressure. a. Ideally, motor pressure should be applied to actuate the O-ring and seal the joint prior to significant opening of the tang-to-clevis gap ( 100 to 200 milliseconds after motor ignition). b. Experimental evidence indicates that temperature, humidity and other variables in the putty compound used to seal the joint can delay pressure application to the joint by 500 milliseconds or more. c. This delay in pressure could be a factor ih initial joint failure.12. Of 21 launches with ambient temperatures of 61 degrees Fahrenheit or greater, only four showed signs of O-ring thermal distress; i.e., erosion or blow-by and soot. Each of the launches below 61. degrees Fahrenheit resulted in one or more O-rings showing signs of thermal distress. a. Of these improper joint sealing actions, one-half occurred in the aft field joints, 20 percent in the center field joints, and 30 percent in the upper field joints. The division between left and right Solid Rockter Boosters was roughly equal. b. Each instance of thermal O-ring distress was accompanied by a leak path in the insulating putty. The leak path connects the rocket's combustion chamber with the O-ring region of the tang and clevis. Joints that actuated without incident may also have had these leak paths13. There is a possibility that there was water in the clevis of the STS 51-L joints since water was found in the STS-9 joints during a destack operation after exposure to less rainfall than STS Sl-L. At time of launch, it was cold enough that water present in the joint would freeze. Tests show that ice in the joint can inhibit proper secondary seal performance .14. A series of puffs of smoke were observed emanating from the 51-L aft field joint area of the right Solid Rocket Booster between 0.678 and 2.500 seconds after ignition of the Shuttle Solid Rocket Motors. a. The puffs appeared at a frequency of about three puffs per second. This roughly matches the natural structural frequency of the solids at lift off and is reflected in slight cyclic changes of the tang-to-clevis gap opening. b. The puffs were seen to be moving upward along the surface of the booster above the aft field joint. c. The smoke was estimated to originate at a circumferential position of between 270 degrees and 315 degrees on the booster aft field joint, emerging from the top of the joint.15. This smoke from the aft field joint at Shuttle lift off was the first sign of the failure of the Solid Rocket Booster O-ring seals on STS 51-L.16. The leak was again clearly evident as a flame at approximately 58 seconds into the flight. It is possible that the leak was continuous but unobservable or non-existent in portions of the intervening period. It is possible in either case that thrust vectoring and normal vehicle response to wind shear as well as planned maneuvers reinitiated or magnified the leakage from a degraded seal in the period preceding the observed flames. The estimated position of the flame, centered at a point 307 degrees around the circumference of the aft field joint, was confirmed by the recovery of two fragments of the right Solid Rocket Booster. a. A small leak could have been present that may have grown to breach the joint in flame at a time on the order of 58 to 60 seconds after lift off. b. Alternatively, the O-ring gap could have been resealed by deposition of a fragile buildup of aluminum oxide and other combustion debris. This resealed section of the joint could have been disturbed by thrust vectoring, Space Shuttle motion and flight loads induced by changing winds aloft. c. The winds aloft caused control actions in the time interval of 32 seconds to 62 seconds into the flight that were typical of the largest values experienced on previous missions.Conclusionln view of the findings, the Commission concluded that the cause of the Challenger accident was the failure of the pressure seal in the aft field joint of the right Solid Rocket Motor. The failure was due to a faulty design unacceptably sensitive to a number of factors. These factors were the effects of temperature, physical dimensions, the character of materials, the effects of reusability, processing, and the reaction of the joint to dynamic loading. (The following is taken from a paper entitled "Secondary Factors Contributing to the Flaw That Caused the Space Shuttle Challenger Explosion." The paper was written for a technical writing class at the University of Texas in Austin by mechanical engineering student Matt Woodfill. August 14, 1991, Austin, Texas.) The Redesigned Solid Rocket Booster Seal/JointThe conclusion of the Presidential Commission's investigation of the Challenger accident was a series of recommendations to help assure return to safe flight of the shuttle. The most important recommendation was the redesign of the SRB joint/seal. Joints should be understood, tested, and verified. In this light, the joint design should provide for dimensional tolerances, transportation and handling, test procedures and inspections, environmental effects, recovery and reuse, as well as flight and water impact test loads. The new design must also include realistic tests that simulate as closely as possible launch conditions and all operating conditions during shuttle flight [Lewis, 1986]. The redesign of the joint/seal shown on the card added a third O-ring and eliminated the troublesome putty which served as a partial seal. Bonded insulation replaced the putty [Lewis, 1986]. A capture device was added to prevent or reduce the opening of the joint as the booster inflated under motor gas pressure during ignition. The third O-ring would be added to seal the joint at the capture device. The former O-rings would be replaced by rings of the same size (.28 inches thick) but made of a better performing material called fluorosilicone or nitrile rubber. Heating strips were added around the joints to assure the O-rings did not experience temperatures lower than 75 degrees Fahrenheit regardless of the surrounding temperature. Also, the gap openings which the O-rings were designed to seal were reduced to 6 thousandths of an inch from the former gap of 30 thousandths of an inch [Lewis, 1986]. Having discussed the redesign of the SRB seal/joint, John Thomas, manager of the redesign work at the Marshall Space Flight Center, stated, "We were charged in the redesign effort with two objectives." He continued, "The primary objective was to design a safe joint and the secondary objective was to utilize existing hardware if we could design a safe joint in that pursuit. I believe we have done that [Lewis, 1986]." ReferencesLewis, S. R., Challenger The Final Voyage , (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988)</text>
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<text> OCTOBER 9TH</text>
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<text>* Soyuz 25 attempted to ferry to Salyut 6 Soviet space station. Instead, it became the 8th Soviet space station mission to fail in 13 attempts after failing to dock correctly (1977).(Click on the Salyut and Soyuz buttons above.)</text>
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<text>* Space technology used to determine the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin (1978).(For more, click on the button on the lower right corner of the image.)* Astronaut Janice E. Voss born in South Bend, Indiana (1956).(Click on the above button for more information about Janice.)</text>
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<text> How Image Enhancement May Explain Past EventsThe following article is reprinted from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory's house magazine, "JPL Universe," dated July 5, 1977.In the "truth is stranger than fiction category"ΓÇöa phone call to NASA's JPL from a member of the Christ Brotherhood in New Mexico, requesting image analysis of a religious relic, has drawn two men from JPL's image processing lab into a fascinating investigation of the famous "Shroud of Turin."The controversial shroud is a 4 1/2 meter, 7.62 centimeter long linen cloth that bears a remarkably detailed image of a bearded, long-haired man, with numerous lacerations over his body.Tradition, dating back to at least 1354 A.D., has it that the fabric, with its brownish, stain-like shadings, is the burial shroud of Jesus Christ.Enshrined in the northern Italian city of Turin since 1578, the shroud has inspired widespread curiosity, especially since the first photographs of it taken in 1898 showed the markings to be a "negative" rather than a "positive" image. The resulting "picture" resembles rubbings made from base-relief art works.JPL's Donald Lynn and Jean Lorre were drawn into the quest for further information about the relic when the Christ Brotherhood members and representatives of a New York based Holy Shroud Guild contacted them last year. These people had learned of the NASA/JPL advanced image processing techniques, and hoped that sophisticated computer analyses might be applied to negatives and color slides of the shroud obtained in 1973. They explained that many questions about various types of marks on the shroud remained unanswered:Was the body image formed from ammonia vapors absorbed into the linen threads, as thought in earlier years? Was it caused by a radiation phenomenon, as one analysis has indicated, or by processes of which scientists are still unaware? Are the dark spots at the wrists and feet direct-contact blood stains? Is the image possibly a "picture" that was painted on? And how could investigators better distinguish between the original image and blemishes such as holes, wrinkles, and burns, scorching and water stains that damaged the cloth during a fire in the Sainte Chapelle in Chamery in 1532?The challenge for Lynn and Lorre was in the first phase a technical one, yet both men became caught up in the age-old mystery, and agreed to see what they could do. Their task was to remove as many of the extraneous markings or "artifacts" as possible in an attempt to reveal a more distinct picture of the figure on the shroud.The pictures they produced (using mathematical and contrast enhancement techniques) revealed a noticeably clearer image of the figure. "We didn't feel we made any major finds," says Lynn, "partly because we had poor quality negatives to work with. However, frequency analysis did tend to rule out the possibility that the figure was hand painted."Both men were so optimistic about the mysteries they might eventually solve if allowed to obtain better photographs, that they chose to present their work to the Holy Shroud Conference in Albuquerque last March.The Albuquerque gathering consisted of 40 participants, including forensic specialists, clergy, scientists from the Air Force Academy, Sandia Laboratory, and the nearby Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, and eminent Protestant and Catholic scholars, including Vatican representatives.Their common objective was to share current studies on the relic and to prepare for greater scientific examination of the garment at an unprecedented exhibition of the shroud in Turin in 1978.The Face of Jesus?ΓÇöEnlargement of the face of the figure imprinted on the "Shroud of Turin" by image enhancement techniques used at NASA's JPL shows white spots, thought to be bloodstains, on hair and forehead.That exhibition could be the "moment of truth" for the shroud's authenticity, according to Anglican scholar John A. T. Robinson of Trinity College, Cambridge, especially if use of the destructive carbon-14 dating process (now successful when applied to fragments as small as a square centimeter) is permitted on the fragile fabric.A report by Dr. John Jackson and Dr. Eric Jumper of the Air Force Academy showed that the figure discernible on the shroud probably was that of a man 5' 10" tall, weighing about 175 pounds. These scientists ultimately hope to produce a three-dimensional statue of the body imprint.One unusual examination by Zurich criminologist Max Frie, indicated that pollen particles found on shroud fibers are indigenous to Palestine, Turkey, France, and Turin, at dates appropriate to the alleged history of the shroud.Despite the many tests made, scientists at the conference emphasized that they still are at a loss to explain how the image got on the shroud.That is why Lynn and Lorre want to pursue this project. They'd like to apply color classification analysis such as is used routinely on Earth-orbiting satellite pictures."To separate the various markings and determine their nature," says Lorre, "we would need to take high resolution photographs of the shroud in many colors, with adequate calibration controls to allow intercomparison between the photographs."Then very sensitive color variation maps could be produced, which might allow one to separate marks by their chemical composition."Because of their professional and personal curiosity, Lynn and Lorre are hoping to participate in a more detailed examination and analysis of the shroud before the planned public exposition in Turin in 1978."Everyone who has come in contact with our shroud pictures shares our excitement," says Lynn. "I've observed a level of religious consciousness, especially among lab employees, which I did not know existed.""Like many people around the world, we'd like answers to these compelling questions... Is this cloth really 2000 years old? Is the image truly the imprint of a human corpse? If so, whose image is it ? And, especially from the scientific viewpoint, how did that image get there?"NASA Activities, November 1977 Detective Story, Part Two (The following article appeared in "NASA Activities," September 1978, p. 7.)Although the "Shroud of Turin" investigation by JPL scientists is not a NASA enterprise, the image enhancement techniques used stem from space technology. The work, therefore, has a NASA connotation. The following article, from the JPL Universe, covers the latest developments in this fascinating story. (See NASA Activities for November 1977 for earlier coverage.)The Shroud of Turin, that ancient burial cloth mysteriously imprinted with a figure thought to resemble Jesus Christ, is dramatically affecting the lives of two JPL scientists.When Don Lynn and Jean Lorre agreed to apply image processing techniques to photographs of the shroud in 1977, they hardly expected to find their results published in newspapers and magazines around the world.Since then, their initial mild curiosity about the relic has intensified through involvement with other American scientists who propose to determine how the shroud was imprinted through a variety of sophisticated tests. The result is that Lynn and Lorre will go to Turin, Italy, in October when Catholic authorities will allow the American science team to make an unprecedented 24-hour examination of the shroud itself.The team is sponsored by the New York-based Holy Shroud Guild of America. And the tests coincide with a public exhibition and international conference about the shroud, to be held in Turin September 26 through October 8.Lynn and Lorre will take infrared and ultraviolet photographs as well as conventional black and white and color pictures. Other team members will make radiographic and X-ray fluorescence examinations.Primarily, they will explore the mechanical formation of the unique "negative" image of a 5-foot-10 man with lacerations about his head, face and body.Turin authorities declined to accept the proposed age-dating tests until it is determined exactly how much cloth is needed to get accurate results. If approval is granted by the conclusion of the exhibition, results from those tests will take months to obtain.Although the shroud has been stitched to a protective cloth backing, the reverse side of the fragile fabric will be examined also, by using a flexible optical instrument.A special frame from which the fabric will be suspended with magnets has been designed by Tom D'Muhala, president of an international nuclear decontamination firm in Connecticut. D'Muhala's chance reading of a book about the shroud led him to build and donate this equipment and to supervise logistics of the team's trip to Europe.A formal proposal for the examinations was sent to authorities in Turin, along with a model of the frame and a unique three-dimensional model of the shroud figure, derived from image enhancement photographs.Based on the relationship between image intensity (shades from black to white) and cloth-body distance, Air Force Academy professors and students built a cardboard model of the shroud's figure. They used slices of l/8-inch-thick cardboard to build up layers (similar in appearance to a topographical map) that form the frontal image of a 5-foot-10 man in a state of repose.As the day of examination approaches, financial support for the American science team is still uncertain. "But we're going ahead with our plans," says Lynn, "because we are certain the funding will come from somewhere."The cooperation of major business corporations has been tremendous, Lynn reports. Photographic and electronic equipment companies, including Polaroid, Kodak and the Brooks Institute of Photography have agreed to lend or donate facilities and equipment for the tests.All the participants are donating their time, but money is needed for purchasing some equipment and for transporting people and equipment to Turin. Funds also are needed for the months, possibly years, needed to analyze the data.Lynn and Lorre expect to provide a "quick look" report of their findings soon after the Turin exhibition. Both men speak of the event with expectation, still in awe of witnessing how technology is unlocking closed doors of history.</text>
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<text>* Launch of Sigma 7 Mercury Mission flown by astronaut Walter Schirra (1962).* First launch of Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-51-J), 1985. (Click on the STS-51-J button above for more information.)* First successful firing of V-2 by Wernher Von Braun team (1942).</text>
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<text>* For the first time, a plane flew with- out a pilot (1918). The technology birthed by this early twientieth cen- tury endeavor led to automated con- trol systems which permitted the tak- ing of the picture at left by a "free- flyer" satellite deployed from the Shuttle's cargo bay. Much of the Shuttle "rocket/plane" is automated.</text>
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<text>* NASAΓÇöthe first day (1958).* Manned Spacecraft Center started out in the Gulfgate shopping mall, in Houston, Texas (1961).* Arthur C. Clark published article on geosynchronous satellites in British magazine, "Wireless World" (1945).</text>
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<text>* German sportsman Fritz von Opel flew a rocket glider powered by 16 solid propellant rockets for about 75 seconds at speed of 95 mph (1929).* End of the first heliocopter flight around the world which took 29 days, 3 hours, and 8 minutes (1982). </text>
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<text>* Completion of the first airplane flight around the world (1924). Flight covers approximately 27,000 miles and takes 175 days. The air- craft are two Douglas Cruiser bi- planes of the U.S. Army Air Corps flown by Lt. Lowell Smith and Lt. Erik Nelson.</text>
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<text>* First manned launch to be aborted; a booster exploded on Soyuz T10-1, forcing cosmonauts Titov and Strekalov to use their launch escape rocket (1983).* Peruvian pilot Georges Chavez was killed near Domodossola, Peru in his Bleriot monoplane as a result of numbness caused by the cold (1910). ("Contact," Villard, p. 243)</text>
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<text>(The following,"Countdown!," PMS 018 (KSC), March 1987, is a narrative summary of NASA launch vehicles and facilities prepared by the NASA Kennedy Space Center. The document, which is too large for a single hypercard scroll field, has been separated into three different buttons. Button A contains information about launch vehicles, both active and inactive, and the various propellants used by these vehicles. Some of the information regarding KSC is now historic. In particular references to unmanned expendible launch facilities at KSC, which are no longer used as noted on the calendar card. However, the information is included for historic value. At present unmanned expendible launch vehicles are still launched elsewhere.) COUNTDOWN! NASA LAUNCH VEHICLES AND FACILITIES Space Launch VehiclesPeople and cargo are propelled into space by rocket power. NASA uses two types of rockets for this purpose, manned and unmanned. The latter, often referred to as expendable launch vehicles, have one or more powered stages. The manned Space Shuttle, the key element of the nation's Space Transportation System, or STS, is a unique design, and is in a class by itself.Payload weight, destination and purpose determine what vehicle capabilities are required for each mission. A low-weight spacecraft designed to operate in near-Earth orbit might be flown aboard NASA's smallest space vehicle, the Scout. Sending a manned Apollo spacecraft to the Moon required the massive Saturn V. The powerful Titan-Centaur combination sent large and complex unmanned scientific explorers such as the Vikings and Voyagers to examine other planets. Atlas-Agenas sent several spacecraft to impact the Moon. Atlas-Centaurs and Deltas have launched over 200 spacecraft for a wide variety of applications that cover the broad range of the national space program.Today, NASA's fleet of space launch vehicles include only the unmanned Scout, Delta and Atlas-Centaur, and the manned Space Shuttle. Inactive Launch Vehicles Atlas/AgenaThe Atlas/Agena was a multipurpose two-stage liquid propellant rocket. It was used to place unmanned spacecraft in Earth orbit, or inject them into the proper trajectories for planetary or deep space probes.The programs in which the versatile Atlas/Agena was used included early Mariner probes to Mars and Venus, Ranger photographic missions to the Moon, the Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO), and early Applications Technology Satellites (ATS). The Agena upper stage also was used as the rendezvous target vehicle for the Gemini spacecraft during this series of two-man missions in 1965-1966. In preparation for the manned lunar landings, Atlas/Agena launched lunar orbiter spacecraft which went into orbit around the Moon and took photographs of possible landing sitesThe Atlas/Agena stood 36.6 meters (120 feet) high, and developed a total thrust at liftoff of approximately 1,725,824 newtons (288,000 pounds). It was last used in 1968 to launch an Orbiting Geophysical Observatory (OGO). Saturn VThe Saturn V, America's most powerful staged rocket, carried out the ambitious task of sending astronauts to the Moon. The first Saturn V vehicle, Apollo 4, was launched on November 9, 1967. Apollo 8, the first manned flight of the Saturn V, was also the first manned flight to the Moon; launched in December 1968, it orbited the Moon but did not land. Apollo 11, launched on a Saturn V on July 16, 1969, achieved the first lunar landing.Saturn V began its last manned mission on December 7, 1972, when it sent Apollo 17 on the final lunar exploration flight. It was last used on May 14, 1973, when it lifted the unmanned Skylab space station into Earth orbit, where it was occupied by three crews for 171 days.All three stages of the Saturn V used liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. The first stage burned kerosene with the oxygen, while the fuel for the two upper stages was liquid hydrogen. Saturn V, with the Apollo spacecraft and its small emergency escape rocket on top, stood 111 meters (363 feet) tall, and developed 34.5 million newtons (7.75 million pounds) of thrust at liftoff. Saturn IBThe Saturn IB was originally used to launch Apollo lunar spacecraft into Earth orbit, to train for manned flights to the Moon. The first launch of a Saturn IB with an unmanned Apollo spacecraft took place in February 1966. A Saturn IB launched the first manned Apollo flight, Apollo 7, on October 11, 1968.After the completion of the Apollo program, the Saturn IB launched three missions to man the Skylab space station in 1973. In 1975 it launched the American crew for the Apollo/Soyuz Test Project, the joint U.S./Soviet Union docking mission.Saturn IB was 69 meters (223 feet) tall with the Apollo spacecraft and developed 7.1 million newtons (1.6 million pounds) of thrust at liftoff. Titan III-E/CentaurThe Titan III-E/Centaur, first launched in 1974, had an overall height of 48.8 meters (160 feet). Designed to use the best features of three proven rocket propulsion systems, this vehicle gave the U.S, an extremely powerful and versatile rocket for launching large spacecraft on planetary missions.The Titan III-E/Centaur was the launch vehicle for two Viking spacecraft to Mars, and two Voyager spacecraft to Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus. It also launched two Helios spacecraft toward the Sun. All provided remarkable new information about our solar system. The Vikings and Voyagers produced spectacular color photography of the planets they explored.The Titan III-E booster was a two-stage liquid-fueled rocket with two large solid-propellant rockets attached. At liftoff, the solid rockets provided 10.7 million newtons (2.4 million pounds) of thrust.The Centaur stage, still in use today, produces 133,440 newtons (30,000 pounds) of thrust from two main engines, and burns for up to seven and one-half minutes. The Centaur can be restarted several times, which allows for more flexibility in launch times. Current Launch Vehicles DeltaDelta is called the workhorse of the space program. This vehicle has successfully transported over 160 scientific, weather, communications and applications satellites into space. These include the TIROS Nimbus and ITOS satellites, and many Explorer scientific spacecraft.First launched in May, 1960, the Delta has been continuously upgraded over the years. Today it stands 35.4 meters (116 feet) tall. Its first stage is augmented by nine Caster IV strap-on solid propellant motors, six of which ignite at liftoff and three after, the first six burn out 58 seconds into the flight. The average first-stage thrust with the main engines and six solid-propellant motors burning is 3,196,333 newtons (718,000 pounds). Delta has liquid-fueled first and second stages and a solid-propellant third stage. For most launches today, this third stage has been replaced by a Payload Assist Module (PAM) stage attached to the spacecraft.The new PAM upper stage is also used on Space Shuttle launches. It boosts spacecraft from the low Earth orbit achieved by the Shuttle orbit into higher ones. Many spacecraft, especially communications satellites, operate in a geosynchronous (geostationary) orbit some 35,792 kilometers (22,240 miles) above the equator. With the PAM and a recent change to a more powerful second stage, the Delta can lift some 1,270 kilograms (2,800 pounds) into a highly elliptical orbit, for transfer into geosynchronous orbit by a motor built into the spacecraft. This is almost double the 680 kilograms (1,500 pounds) a Delta could manage only seven years ago. Atlas/CentaurThe Atlas/Centaur is NASA's standard launch vehicle for intermediate payloads. It is used for the launch of Earth orbital, geosynchronous, and interplanetary missions.Centaur was the nation's first high-energy, liquid-hydrogen liquid-oxygen launch vehicle stage. It became operational in 1966 with the launch of Surveyor-1, the first U.S. spacecraft to soft-land on the Moon.Since 1966, both the Atlas booster and the Centaur second stage have undergone many improvements. At present, the combined stages can place over 4,530 kilograms (10,000 pounds) in low-Earth orbit, about 2,020 kilograms (4,453 pounds) in geosynchronous transfer orbit, and over 1,000 kilograms (2,205 pounds) on an interplanetary trajectory.An Atlas-Centaur stands 41.9 meters (137.6 feet) tall. At liftoff, the Atlas booster develops over 1.9 million newtons (438,400 pounds) of thrust. The Centaur second stage develops 146,784 newtons (33,000 pounds) of thrust in a vacuum.Spacecraft launched by Atlas/Centaurs include Orbiting Astronomical Observatories; Applications Technology Satellites; Intelsat IV, IV-A and V communications satellites; Mariner Mars orbiters; the Mariner, spacecraft which made a fly-by of Venus and three of Mercury; the Pioneer, spacecraft which accomplished fly-bys of Jupiter and Saturn, and that orbited Venus and plunged through its atmosphere to the surface. ScoutThe Scout launch vehicle, which became operational in 1960, has been undergoing systematic upgrading since 1976. The standard Scout vehicle is a solid-propellant, four-stage booster system approximately 23 meters (75 feet) in length with a launch weight of 21,600 kilograms (46,620 pounds) and liftoff thrust of 588,240 newtons (132,240 pounds).Recent improvements include an uprated third-stage motor which increases the Scout's payload capability. It can now place up to 211 kilograms (465 pounds) in low Earth orbit. The third stage also has been provided with an improved guidance system.Over 100 Scouts have been launched to date. They have been used to place a variety of U.S. and international payloads into inclined, equatorial, and polar orbits for orbital, probe, and reeentry missions. Space ShuttleOn April 12, 1981, the first Space Shuttle vehicle lifted off from Launch Complex 39, Pad A, at the Kennedy Space Center. After a two-day test-flight mission that verified the craft's ability to function in space, the orbiter Columbia landed at Edwards Air Force Base in California. The Vehicle was piloted by astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen. The STS-1 mission marked the first time a new space vehicle had been manned on its first flight.The Space Shuttle consists of a reusable delta-winged spaceplane called the orbiter; two solid propellant rocket boosters, which are recovered and also reused; and an expendable external tank, containing liquid propellants for the orbiter's three main engines.The assembled Space Shuttle is approximately 56 meters (184 feet) long, 23.3 meters (76 feet) high (to tip of orbiter's vertical tail), and 24 meters (78 feet) wide, measured across the orbiter's wingtips. Liftoff weight of the Shuttle vehicle is approximately 2,041,168 kilograms (4,500,000 pounds).At launch, the orbiter's three liquid-fueled enginesΓÇödrawing propellants from the external tankΓÇöand the two solid propellant rocket boosters burn simultaneously. Together, they generate about 28,650,000 newtons (6,400,000 pounds) of thrust at liftoff. As the Space Shuttle reaches an altitude of about 50 kilometers (31 miles), the spent solids are detached and parachuted into the ocean where they are recovered by waiting ships for eventual refurbishment and reuse on later missions. The orbiter and external tank, still attached to each other, continue toward Earth orbit. When the orbiter's main engines cut off, just before orbit is achieved, the external tank is jettisoned, to impact in a remote ocean area. Using on-board orbital maneuvering engines, the orbiter, with its crew and payload, accelerates into orbit to carrry out an operational mission, normally lasting from two to seven days. When the mission is completed, the orbiter reenters the atmosphere and returns to Earth, gliding to an unpowered landing. Touchdown speed is above 335 kilometers (210 miles) per hour. PropellantsSir Isaac Newton stated in his Third Law of Motion that every action is accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction. A rocket operates on this principle. The continuous ejection of a stream of hot gases in one direction causes a steady motion of the rocket in the opposite direction.A jet aircraft operates on the same principle, using oxygen in the atmosphere to support combustion of its fuel. The rocket engine is designed to operate outside the atmosphere, and so must carry its own oxidizer.The gauge of efficiency for rocket propellants is specific impulse, stated in seconds. The higher the number, the "hotter" the propellant.Stated most simply, specific impulse is the period in seconds for which a one pound mass of propellant (total of fuel and oxidizer) will produce a thrust of one pound force. Although specific impulse is a characteristic of the propellant system, its exact value will vary to some extent with the operating conditions and design of the rocket engine. It is for this reason that different numbers are often quoted for a given propellant or combination of propellants.NASA launch vehicles use four types of propellants: petroleum, cryogenics, hypergolics and solids. PetroleumThe petroleum used as a rocket fuel is a type of kerosene similar to the kind burned in heaters and lamps. However, petroleum used for rocket fuel is highly refined, and is called RPΓÇö1 (Refined Petroleum). It is burned with liquid oxygen (the oxidizer) to provide thrust.RPΓÇö1 is used as a fuel in the first stage boosters of the Delta and Atlas-Centaur rockets. It also was used to power the first stages of the Saturn IB and Saturn V. RPΓÇö1 delivers a specific impulse considerably less than cryogenic fuels. CryogenicCryogenic propellants used are liquid oxygen (LOX), which serves as an oxidizer, and liquid hydrogen (LH2), which is a fuel. The word cryogenic is a derivative of the Greek kryos, meaning "ice cold." LOX remains in a liquid state at temperatures of -183 degrees Celsius (-298 degrees Fahrenheit); LH2 remains liquid at temperatures of -253 degrees Celsius (-423 degrees Fahrenheit).In gaseous form, oxygen and hydrogen have such low densities that extremely large tanks would be required to store them aboard a rocket. But cooling and compressing them into liquids vastly increases their density, making it possible to store them in large quantities in smaller tanks.The distressing tendency of cryogenics to return to gaseous form unless kept super-cool makes them difficult to store over long periods of time, and hence less than satisfactory as propellants for military rockets, which must be kept launch-ready for months at a time.But the high efficiency of the liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen combination makes the low temperature problem worth coping with when reaction time and storability are not too critical. Hydrogen has about 40 percent more "bounce to the ounce" than other rocket fuels, and is very light, weighing about one-half pound per gallon.Oxygen is much heavier, weighing about 10 pounds per gallon.The RLΓÇö10 engines used by Centaur, the United States' (and the world's) first liquid hydrogen rocket stage, have a specific impulse of 444 seconds. The J-2 engines used on the Saturn V second and third stages, and on the Saturn IB's second stage, also burned the LOX/ LH2 combination. They had specific impulse ratings of 425 seconds.For comparison purposes, the liquid oxygen/kerosene combination used in the cluster of five F-1 engines in the Saturn V first stage had specific impulse ratings of 260 seconds. The same propellant combination used by the booster stage of the Atlas-Centaur rocket yields 258 seconds in the booster engine and 220 seconds in the sustainer.The high efficiency engines aboard the Space Shuttle orbiter use liquid hydrogen-oxygen and have a specific impulse rating of 455 seconds. The two liquid propellants also are used by the orbiter's fuel cells to produce electrical power through a process best described as electrolysis in reverse.Liquid hydrogen and oxygen burn clean, leaving a by-product of water vapor.The rewards for mastering LH2 are substantial. The ability to use hydrogen means that a given mission can be accomplished with a smaller quantity of propellants (and hence, a smaller vehicle), or, alternately, that the mission can be accomplished with a larger payload than is possible with the same mass of conventional propellants. In short, hydrogen yields a bigger bang for the buck. HypergolicHypergolic propellants are fuels and oxidizers which ignite on contact with each other and need no ignition source. This easy start and restart capability makes them attractive for both manned and unmanned spacecraft maneuvering systems. Another plus is their storabilityΓÇöthey do not have the extreme temperature requirements of cryogenicsThe fuel is monomethylhydrazine (MMH), and the oxidizer is nitrogen tetroxide (N204)Hydrazine is a clear, nitrogen/ hydrogen compound with a "fishy" smell. It is similar to ammonia.N204 is a brownish fluid which might be described as a super nitric acid. It has the sharp, acrid smell of many acids. Both fluids are highly toxic, and are handled under the most stringent safety conditions.Hypergolic propellants are used in the liquid propellant stages of the Titan class of launch vehicles, including the Titan 11 I-E/Centaur series which was used by NASA to launch the Helios sun probes, and the Viking and Voyager planetary explorers.The Space Shuttle orbiter uses hypergols in its Orbital Maneuvering Subsystem (OMS) for orbital insertion, major orbital maneuvers and deorbit. The Reaction Control System (RCS) uses hypergols for attitude control.The efficiency of the MMH/ N204 combination in the Space Shuttle orbiter ranges from 260 to 280 seconds in the RCS to 313 seconds in the OMS. The higher efficiency of the OMS system is attributed to higher expansion ratios in the nozzles and higher pressures in the combustion chambers. SolidThe solid propellant motor is the oldest and simplest of all forms of rocketry, dating back to the ancient Chinese. It is simply a casing, usually steel, filled with a mixture of solid-form chemicals (fuel and oxidizer) which burn at a rapid rate, expelling hot gases from a nozzle to achieve thrust.Solids require no turbopumps or complex propellant feed systems. Ignition is by a simple squib device at the top of the motor which directs a high-temperature flame along the surface of the propellant grain, igniting it instantaneously.The propellant, a rubbery substance with the consistency of a hard rubber eraser, has a starshaped (other shapes are possible) hollow channel extending through the center. When ignited the propellant burns from the center out toward the sides of the casing.The shaped center channel exposes more or less burning area at any given point in time, thus providing a means to vary the thrust of the expelled gases.Solid propellants are easily stored and stable. Unlike liquid propellant engines though, a solid propellant motor cannot be shut down. Once ignited, it will burn until all propellant is exhausted.Solids are used in a variety of ways for space operations. Small solids often power the final stage of a launch vehicle, or are attached to payload elements to boost satellites and spacecraft to higher orbits.Medium solids such as the Payload Assist Module (PAM) and the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) provide the added boost to place satellites into geosynchronous orbit or on planetary trajectories.The PAM is used for payload boost on the Delta and Space Shuttle. The IUS is carried by the Space Shuttle and the Titan III class of launch vehicles.Only one of the nation's stable of launch vehicles uses solids exclusively. This is NASA's Scout, a four-stage rocket used to orbit small satellites.Titan, Delta, and Space Shuttle vehicles depend on solid rockets to provide added thrust at liftoff.The Space Shuttle uses the largest solid rocket motors ever built and flown. Each, which is reusable, contains 498,951 kilograms (1.1 million pounds) of propellant.This propellant consists of an aluminum powder (16 percent) as a fuel; ammonium perchlorate (69.93 percent) as an oxidizer; iron oxidizer powder (.07 percent) as a catalyst; polybutadiene acrylic acid acrylonitrile (12.04 percent) as a rubber-based binder; and an epoxy curing agent (1.96 percent). The binder and epoxy are also burned as a fuel, adding thrust.The specific impulse of the Space Shuttle solid rocket booster propellant is 242 seconds at sea level and 262 seconds at altitude.(Continue by clicking on Countdown! (B) button.)</text>
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<text>(The following,"Countdown!," PMS 018 (KSC), March 1987, is a narrative summary of NASA launch vehicles and facilities prepared by the NASA Kennedy Space Center. The document, which is too large for a single hypercard scroll field, has been separated into three different buttons. Button B contains information about the Kennedy Space Center's facilities and operations.) Facilities and OperationsNASA conducts launch operations for its current stable of launch vehicles at several sites across the country. The Scout rocket is launched by the Langley Research Center from facilities at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, and from the Wallops Flight Facility on the east coast of Virginia. Visiting teams from Italy occasionally launch Scouts from San Marco, a man-made platform in the ocean off the east coast of Africa.The Kennedy Space Center, the nation's primary launch organization, prepares and launches unmanned Deltas and Atlas-Centaur rockets from facilities at Complexes 17 and 36 on Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida. Manned Space Shuttle launches are conducted from Launch Complex 39, located at the northern tip of Cape Canaveral.The Complex 39 facilities at Kennedy Space Center originally were built to support the Apollo Lunar Landing Program. From 1967 to 1975, 12 Saturn V/Apollo vehicles, one Saturn V/Skylab workshop, three Saturn IB/Apollo vehicles for the Skylab crews, and one Saturn IB/Apollo for the joint U.S./Soviet Apollo-Soyuz mission were launched from Complex 39. These facilities then were modified to process and launch the Space Shuttle. Reworking existing facilities was far less expensive than building all new structures. Two major new additions were added, a special runway to land returning orbiters and an orbiter checkout hangar called the Orbiter Processing Facility. During the 1980s, a number of new facilities were added for solid rocket booster processing and Shuttle logistics.These facilities, and how they support Space Shuttle operations, are explained in the following paragraphs. Shuttle Landing FacilityWhen an operational Space Shuttle orbiter returns to Earth from its mission in space and lands at the Kennedy Space Center, it touches down on one of the world's longest runways. This facility is located two miles northwest of the Vehicle Assembly Building, on a northwest/southeast alignment.The Shuttle Landing Facility runway is about twice the length and width of those used at commercial airports. It is 4,572 meters (15,000 feet) long, 91.4 meters (300 feet) wide, and 40.5 centimeters ( 16 inches) thick at the center. Safety overruns of 305 meters ( 1,000 feet) are provided at each end. The runway is not perfectly flat, but has a slope of 61 centimeters (24 inches) from the centerline to the edge. Small grooves, each 0.63 centimeter (0.25 inch) wide and deep, have been cut into the concrete every 2.85 centimeters (1.25 inches) across the runway. There are a total of 13,600 kilometers (8,450 miles) of these grooves. Together with the slope of the concrete they provide rapid drain-off of rain, as well as a more skid-resistant surface.A 168-meter (550-foot) by 149-meter (490-foot) aircraft apron, or ramp, is attached to the runway near the southeastern end. The Mate/Demate Device, which lifts the orbiter for attachment to or removal from its 747 carrier aircraft during ferry operations, is locatedon the northeast corner of the ramp. It also provides movable platforms for access to certain orbiter components.A Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) station is located at midfield off the east side of the runway. This is a homing transmitter that broadcasts a signal receivable by the orbiter. The TACAN has a range of 483 kilometers (300 miles) and is received when the spacecraft emerges from the reentry blackout period. The final approach is guided by a precision Microwave Scanning Beam Landing System, which is accurate to within 99.33% in bringing the orbiter to the designated point on the runway.Unlike conventional aircraft, the orbiter lacks propulsion during the landing phase. Its high-speed glide must bring it in for a landing perfectly the first timeΓÇöthere is no circle-and-try-again capability. The landing speed of the orbiter is 346 kilometers (215 miles) per hour.Landings may be made on the runway from the northwest to southeast (Runway 15) or from the southeast to northwest (Runway 33). The landing system ground equipment is duplicated to permit an approach from either direction. Shuttle landings also are made at Edwards AFB, California. Orbiter Processing FacilitySpace Shuttle orbiters are processed between missions in a structure analogous to a sophisticated aricraft hanger, the Orbiter Processing Facility. Capable of handling two orbiters in parallel, this facility is located to the west of the Vehicle Assembly Building.The Orbiter Processing Facility consists of two identical high bays connected by a low bay. The high bays are each 60 meters (197 feet) long, 46 meters (150 feet) wide, and 29 meters (95 feet) high. Each is equipped with two 27-metric ton (30-ton) bridge cranes, and contains platforms which effectively surround the orbiter to provide personnel access. The high bay areas have an emergency exhaust system in case of a fuel spill, and fire protection systems are installed throughout the facility. The low bay separating the two high bays is 71 meters (233 feet) long, 30 meters (97 feet) wide, and eight meters (25 feet) high. The low bay houses electronic, mechanical, and electrical support systems as well as shops and office space.Spacecraft processed through checkout in a horizontal attitude, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, are loaded into the orbiter in the Orbiter Processing Facility. Spacecraft that are checked out and installed in a vertical attitude are mated with the orbiter at the launch pad.The processing of the orbiter for flight resembles an airline maintenance program, rather than the customary long and complex space vehicle checkout and launch operation . Orbiter Modification and Refurbishment FacilityLocated just northwest of the Vehicle Assembly Building, this 4,645 square meter (50,000 square foot) facility is used to perform modification, rehabilitation and overhaul of Space Shuttle orbiters outside of the facilities used in the normal operational flow. The building consists of a high bay 29 meters (95 feet) high and a two story low bay area. It contains special work platforms, storage and parts areas, offices, and specialized equipment needed to perform orbiter modifications that do not require a return to the manufacturing facilities in California. Logistics FacilityThis modern, 30,159 square meter (324,640 square foot) facility is located south of the Vehicle Assembly Building and houses some 190,000 shuttle hardware parts and over 500 NASA and contractor personnel. A unique feature of the building is its state-of-the-art storage and retrieval system which includes automated handling equipment to find and retrieve specific parts. Solid Rocket Booster ProcessingFollowing a Space Shuttle launch, the expended solid rocket boosters parachute into the ocean. They are retrieved by recovery ships and towed back to facilities on Cape Canaveral Air Force Station for disassembly and cleaning. The empty propellant-carrying segments are transferred to booster processing facilities at Complex 39, where they are prepared for shipment by rail to the manufacturer for propellant reloading. The remaining solid rocket booster components are taken to an assembly and refurbishment area adjacent to Complex 39 for reconditioning, assembly, and testing.The solid rocket booster launch processing flow is as follows:Rotation Processing Building: located just north of the Vehicle Assembly Building, this facility receives new and reloaded solid rocket booster segmentsΓÇöaft, aft center, forward and forward centerΓÇöshipped by rail from the manufacturer. Here, inspection, rotation and aft skirt/aft segment buildup are performed.Assembly and Refurbishment Facility: this facility, located several miles south of the Vehicle Assembly Building, covers 45 acres and consists of four main buildingsΓÇö Manufacturing, Engineering and Administration, Service, and Hot Fire. Inert booster components such as the aft and forward skirts frustums, nose caps, recovery systems, electronics and instrumentation, and elements of the thrust vector control system are received, refurbished, assembled, and tested. Completed aft skirt assemblies are transferred to the Rotation Processing Building for integration with the aft segments. The remaining components are integrated with the booster stack during mating operations inside the Vehicle Assembly Building.SURGE Buildings (2): each of these facilities is used to store two solid rocket booster flight sets (eight segments) after transfer from the adjacent Rotation Processing Building. They remain here until moved to the Vehicle Assembly Building for integration with other flight-ready booster components from the Assembly and Refurbishment Facility.Vehicle Assembly Building: all booster elements are integrated here into complete flight sets and mated with the Space Shuttle orbiter and external tank. External TankThe external tank is transported by barge from its manufacturing site at Michoud, Louisiana, to Kennedy Space Center. It is offloaded at the Complex 39 turn basin and transferred into the Vehicle Assembly Building, where it is processed and stored in the high bay area until mating with the other Space Shuttle flight elements.The external tank is the largest element of the Space Shuttle system. It contains two inner tanks which hold the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen propellants that are fed into the orbiter's main engines during the ascent phase of launch. It is the only Space Shuttle component that is not recovered and reused. Vehicle Assembly BuildingAfter preparation in the Orbiter Processing Facility, the orbiter is towed to the Vehicle Assembly Building. This is the heart of Launch Complex 39 and has been modified for use in assembling the Space Shuttle vehicle.One of the largest buildings in the world, the Vehicle Assembly Building covers a ground area of 32,376 square meters (eight acres) and has a volume of 3,624,000 cubic meters (129,428,000 cubic feet). It is 160 meters (525 feet) tall, 218 meters (716 feet) long and158 meters (518 feet) wide. The building is divided into a high bay area 160 meters (525 feet) tall, and a low bay area which is 64 meters (210 feet) tall.The structure is designed to withstand winds of up to 200 kilometers (125 miles) per hour. Its foundation rests on more than 4,200 steel pilings 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter, driven down to bedrock at a depth of 49 meters (160 feet) .The Vehicle Assembly Building has more than 70 lifting devices, including two 227-metric ton (250 ton) bridge cranes.The Low Bay area contains Space Shuttle main engine maintenance and overhaul shops, and serves as a holding area for solid rocket booster forward assemblies and aft skirts.High Bays 1 and 3 are used for integration and stacking of the complete Space Shuttle vehicle. High Bay 2 is used for external tank checkout and storage and as a contingency storage area for orbiters. High Bay 4 also is used for external tank checkout and storage as well as for payload canister operations and solid rocket booster contingency handling.During Space Shuttle buildup operations inside the Vehicle Assembly Building, integrated solid rocket booster segments are transferred from nearby assembly and checkout facilities, hoisted onto a Mobile Launcher Platform in High Bays 1 or 3 and mated together to form two complete solid rocket boosters. The external tank, after arrival by barge, and subsequent checkout, inspection and storage in High Bays 2 or 4, is transferred to High Bays 1 or 3 to be attached to the solid rocket boosters already in place. The orbiter, the final element to be added, is towed from the Orbiter Processing Facility to the Vehicle Assembly Building transfer aisle, raised to a vertical position by overhead Granes, lowered onto the Mobile Launcher Platform, and mated to the rest of the stack.When assembly and checkout operations are complete, the huge outer doors of a high bay open to permit the Crawler-Transporter to enter and move under the Mobile Launcher Platform holding the assembled Shuttle vehicle. These high bay doors are 139 meters (456 feet) high from ground to top. Seven 23 meter (76 foot) wide sliding panels rise vertically into a protected enclosure near the top of the building. Four panels at the bottom move apart horizontally, to create an opening that is 46 meters (152 feet) wide and 35 meters (114 feet) high. The Mobile Launcher Platform is so huge it forms a fairly snug "fit" within these dimensions. Launch Control CenterIf the Vehicle Assembly Building is the heart of Launch Complex 39, the Launch Control Center is its brain. This is a four-story structure on the east side of the Vehicle Assembly Building and connected with it by an elevated, enclosed bridge.The Launch Control Center contains four firing rooms that are used to conduct NASA and classified military launches. Each is equipped with the Launch Processing System which monitors and controls most Space Shuttle assembly, checkout, and launch operations .The Space Shuttle final countdown requires approximately five hours, compared to 28 hours for a Saturn/Apollo countdown. Launches utilizing the Launch Processing System require approximately 90 personnel in the firing room as compared with 450 needed for previous manned missions.The Launch Processing System consists of two major parts, the Central Data Subsystem and the Checkout, Control, and Monitor Subsystem.The Central Data Subsystem operates four computers that store test procedures, vehicle processing data, a master program library, historical data, and pretest/posttest analyses. The Central Data Subsystem is located on the second floor of the Launch Control Center.The operators of the Checkout, Control, and Monitor Subsystem utilize consoles, mini-computers, a large mass storage unit, and other related equipment located in the firing rooms to actually process and launch the vehicle. Shuttle checkout, countdown, and launch operations are conducted with the support of the information stored in the Central Data Subsystem. Transportable EquipmentThe Mobile Launcher Platform is a steel structure 7.6 meters (25 feet) high, 49 meters (160 feet) long, and 41 meters (135 feet) wide. It selves as a transportable launch base for the Space Shuttle. The platform is constructed of steel up to 15 centimeters (six inches) thick. At their parking sites north of the Vehicle Assembly Building, in the high bays, and at the launch pads, the two Mobile Launcher Platforms rest on six 6.7-meter (22-foot) tall pedestals. There are three openings through the main body of a platform. Two are for the exhaust of the solid rocket boosters, and the third, the one in the center, is for the Shuttle main engines exhaust.Two large devices called Tail Service Masts sit on each side of the Space Shuttle orbiter main engines exhaust hole. They provide several umbilical connections to the orbiter, including a liquid oxygen line running through one and a liquid hydrogen line through the other. These cryogenic propellants are fed into the external tank from the pad tanks via these connections. At launch the umbilicals are pulled away from the orbiter and retract into the masts, where protective hoods rotate closed to shield them from the exhaust flames. Each Tail Service Mast assembly is 4.5 meters (15 feet) long, 2.7 meters (nine feet) wide, and rises 9.4 meters (31 feet) above the platform deck.The Hydrogen Burnoff System consists of two 1.5-meter (5-foot) long booms, one suspended from each Tail Service Mast. Each boom contains four flare-like devices which are designed to burn off gas from a preignition flow of liquid hydrogen through the main engines. This is to keep a cloud of excess gaseous hydrogen from forming, which could explode upon ignition of the main engines.The Space Shuttle is supported and held on the Mobile Launcher Platform by eight attach posts, four on the aft skirt of each of the two solid rocket boosters. These fit on counterpart posts located in the platform's two solid rocket booster support wells. The vehicle is freed by triggering explosive nuts which release the giant studs linking the solid rocket booster attach posts with the platform support posts.There are two inner levels in each Mobile Launcher Platform, with various rooms that house electrical, test, and propellant loading equipment. Unloaded, a Mobile Launcher Platform weighs 3.7 million kilograms (8.23 million pounds).The two Crawler-Transporter tracked vehicles were previously used to move Saturn rockets from the Vehicle Assembly Building to the launch pad. The transporters are 6.1 meters (20 feet) tall, 40 meters (131 feet) long and 35 meters (114 feet) wide. The maximum speed unloaded is 3.2 kilometers (two miles) per hour, while maximum speed with the load of the Space Shuttle is 1.6 kilometers (one mile) per hour. A crawler has eight tracks, each of which has 57 shoes, or cleats. Each shoe weighs approximately one ton. Unloaded, the transporter weighs 2,857,680 kilograms (6.3 million pounds).The transporters have a leveling system that will keep the top of the Space Shuttle vertical while negotiating the five-percent grade leading up to the top of the launch pad.The transporter is powered by two 2,750 horsepower diesel engines. The engines drive four 1,000 kilowatt generators which provide electrical power to the 16 traction motors.The Payload Canister provides restraint and protection to the various Shuttle payloads while in transit from payload processing or assembly facilities to either the launch pad (vertically handled payloads) or Orbiter Processing Facility (horizontally handled payloads). The canister is 21 meters (69 feet) long, 6.4 meters (21 feet) wide and 6.4 meters (21 feet) high.The canister is made to physically resemble the cargo bay of the orbiter. It can accommodate payloads up to 18.3 meters (60 feet) long, 4.5 meters (15 feet) in diameter, and up to 29,481 kilograms (65,000 pounds) in weight. It provides environmental control and protection to payloads while in transit, and can supply certain needed support services such as gas purges and monitoring of critical measurements.The Payload Canister Transporter is a 48-wheel self-propelled truck designed to transport the canister and its associated hardware. The transporter rides on rubber tires and is designed to operate on normal hard road surfaces. It is 19.8 meters (65 feet) long and 7 meters (23 feet) wide. Its elevating flatbed has a height of 1.8 meters (6 feet) but can be lowered to 1.6 meters (5 feet 3 inches) or raised to 2.1 meters (7 feet). Its wheels are independently steerable and permit the transporter to move forward, backward, or sideways; to "crab" diagonally; or to turn on its own axis like a carousel.The transporter is driven by a hydraulic system powered by a liquid-cooled diesel engine. However, when within a spacecraft facility the transporter runs on an electric motor using ground power.The bare transporter weighs 63,500 kilograms (140,000 pounds). With a full load of diesel fuel, the environmental control system, communications systems, and other equipment and instrumentation mounted on it, the transporter has a gross weight of 77,300 kilograms (170,500 pounds).The transporter is steerable from diagonally opposed operator cabs on each end. Its top speed unloaded is 16 km/h (10 mph), but fully loaded it is 8 km/h (5 mph). Because payload handling will require precise movements, the transporter has a "creep" mode that permits it to move as slowly as 0.023 km/h (0.014 mph). The transporter can carry the payload canister in either the horizontal or vertical position. CrawlerwayThe Crawler-Transporters move on a roadway 40 meters (130 feet) wide, almost as broad as an eightlane turnpike. The crawlerway consists of two 12-meter (40-foot) wide lanes, separated by a 15-meter (50-foot) wide median strip, that run from the Vehicle Assembly Building to the launch pads. The top surface on which the transporters operate is river gravel. This glavel layer is 20 centimeters (eight inches) thick on curves and half that on the straightaway sections. The distance from the Vehicle Assembly Building to Pad 39A is about 5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles), and to Pad 39B, 6.8 kilometers (4.25 miles). Launch Pads 39A and 39BThe Launch Complex 39 pads are roughly octagonal in shape. Each covers about 0.64 square kilometer (0.25 square mile) of land, contained within a high chain link fence. Space Shuttles are launched from the top of the concrete hardstand in the center of the pad. The Pad A stand is 14.63 meters (48 feet) above sea level at its top, and Pad B is 16.76 meters (55 feet). The top of each pad measures 119 meters (390 feet) by 99 meters (325 feet). The two major items of equipment on each pad are the Fixed Service Structure and the Rotating Service Structure.The Fixed Service Structure is located on the west side of the hardstand. A hammerhead crane on top provides hoisting services as required in pad operations. There are 12 work levels at six-meter (20 foot) intervals. The height of the structure to the top of the tower is 75 meters (247 feet), to the top of the hammerhead crane 81 meters (265 feet), and to the top of the lightning mast 106 meters (347 feet).Swingarms on the Fixed Service Structure provide access to the orbiter for crew and equipment. The Orbiter Access Arm swings out to the crew compartment to provide personnel access. The outer end of this arm supports a small room, holding up to 6 persons, commonly called the "White Room." It mates with the crew hatch. This arm remains in the extended position until seven minutes prior to launch, to provide an emergency exit for the crew should one be needed. It is 20 meters (65 feet) long, 1.5 meters (5 feet) wide, and 2.4 meters (8 feet) high. The Orbiter Access Arm is attached to the Service Structure at the 44.8-meter (147-foot) level. It rotates to its retracted position in approximately 30 seconds.The External Tank Gaseous Oxygen Vent Arm lowers a hood, called the beanie cap, over the top of the Shuttle's external fuel tank. Heated gaseous nitrogen is pumped into the hood to warm the liquid oxygen vent system at the top of the external tank. This prevents vapors at the vent opening from condensing into ice that could dislodge and damage the orbiter during launch. The vent system arm is 24.4 meters (80 feet) long, 15 meters (5 feet) wide, and 2.4 meters (8 feet) high. The diameter of the vent hood is 4 meters (13 feet). The arm is attached to the Fixed Service Structure between the 63.1-meter (207-foot) and 69.2-meter (227-foot) levels. The arm and its hood can be retracted in about one minute and 30 seconds. They are in the fully retracted position at approximately 45 seconds prior to launch.The External Hydrogen Vent Line Access Arm provides a means of mating the external tank umbilicals to the pad facilities, and provides work access to the tank area. This arm retracts several hours before launch, leaving the umbilicals attached. At the moment the solid rocket boosters ignite, these umbilicals eject from the Shuttle and fall back against the tower, where they are protected from engine flame by a curtain of sprayed water. This arm is 15 meters (48 feet) long, and attached at the 51-meter (167-foot) level .The Rotating Service Structure provides access to the orbiter for installation and servicing of payloads at the pad. It pivots through one third of a circle, from a retracted position well away from the Shuttle to the point where its payload changeout room doors meet and match the orbiter cargo bay doors. It rotates around a vertical hinge attached to one corner of the Fixed Service Structure. Most of its body is some 18 meters (59 feet) above the pad, supported by the hinge and a structural framework on the opposite end. This framework rests on two eight-wheel motor-driven trucks, which ride on rails installed within the pad surface. The rotating body is 31 meters (102 feet) long, 15 meters (50 feet) wide, and 40 meters (130 feet) high.The primary purpose of the Rotating Service Structure is to receive Space Shuttle payloads while in the retracted position, rotate, and install them in the orbiter cargo bay. With the exception of the Spacelab and other large horizontal payloads, which are loaded while the orbiter is in the Orbiter Processing Facility, all spacecraft are loaded into the Shuttle at the pad. The payload changeout room provides an environmentally clean or "white room" condition in which to receive payloads from their protective transportation canisters, and maintains this cleanliness by never exposing the spacecraft to the open air during the transfer operations.In operation, a canister is hoisted to the proper elevation in the retracted Rotating Service Structure and locked into position. The environmental seals in the Rotating Service Structure are inflated against the sides of the canister. The space between the closed doors of the Rotating Service Structure and the canister are purged with clean, temperature and humidity-controlled air, after which the doors may be opened. The payload is then transferred from the canister into the Rotating Service Structure, the canister and Rotating Service Structure doors are closed, the environmental seal is deflated, and the canister is lowered to its transporter to be taken off the pad. The Rotating Service Structure rolls into position to enclose the orbiter's payload bay, reestablishing the environmental seals and clean air purge. The Rotating Service Structure and payload bay doors are then opened so that the payload may be installed.A Weather Protection System at Pads A and B shields the orbiter from windblown debris, heavy rains and hail that could damage the craft's fragile heat protection tiles. A considerable portion of the orbiter is shielded by the Rotating Service Structure and its attached Payload Changeout Room which closes in around the vehicle while on the pad. The Weather Protection System fills in the gaps.Protection for the lower portion of the orbiter is provided by metal doors that slide together between the orbiter's belly and the external tank. The doors, measuring up to 16 meters (53 feet) long, 11.6 meters (38 feet) tall and weighing up to 21 metric tons (46,000 pounds), are connected to the Rotating Service Structure and the Fixed Service Structure. The doors move together from opposite sides on wheeled flanges that ride on steel beams.The top of the orbiter is protected by an inflatable seal that extends from the Payload Changeout Room, forming a semicircle covering 90 degrees of arc between the vehicle and the external tank. A series of 20 or more bifold metal doors, about 24.4 x 1.2 meters (80 x 4 feet) in size, fold out from the Payload Changeout Room on the Rotating Service Structure to cover the side areas between the external tank and the orbiter. (Continue by clicking on "Countdown! (C)" button)</text>
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<text>(The following,"Countdown!," PMS 018 (KSC), March 1987, is a narrative summary of NASA launch vehicles and facilities prepared by the NASA Kennedy Space Center. The document, which is too large for a single hypercard scroll field, has been separated into three different buttons. Button C contains information about Kennedy Space Center's facilities and operations.)The Flame Deflector System protects the vehicle and pad structures from the intense heat of launch. It is located in the ground level flame trench that bisects the hardstand. A flame deflector functions by presenting an inverted V-shape to the flames pouring into the trench through openings in the Mobile Launcher Platform. Both sides of the upside-down V curve out near the bottom until they are almost horizontal. Flames follow these curves and are deflected horizontally down the flame trench, rather than bouncing back up to envelop the vehicle.The flame trench divides the hardstand lengthwise from ground level to the pad surface. It is 149 meters (490 feet) long, 18 meters (58 feet) wide, and 12 meters (40 feet) high. At launch, flames shoot out both ends of the trench into the air. The deflector for the Space Shuttle is actually a two-in-one device, where one side of the inverted V receives the flames from the orbiter's main engines, and the opposite side the flames from the two solid rocket boosters. It is fixed near the center of the trench, and extends completely across it.The orbiter and booster deflectors are built of steel and covered with an ablative material about 13 centimeters (five inches) thick that flakes off to shed heat. They weigh over 453,592 kilograms (one million pounds) each.In addition to the fixed deflectors, there are two movable ones located at the top of the trench, for additional protection from the solid rocket booster flames.The Slidewire System provides an escape route for the astronauts and closeout crew until the final 30 seconds of countdown. Five slidewires extend from the Fixed Service Structure at the Orbiter Access Arm level down to the ground. A flat-bottom basket made of steel wire and heat resistant fiber is suspended from each of five wires and positioned for entry in event of emergency. Each basket can hold two persons. The basket slides down a 366-meter (1,200 foot) wire to a bunker located west of the Fixed Service Structure. The descent takes approximately 35 seconds and is controlled by a friction brake between the basket and the wire.The Lightning Mast extends above the Fixed Service Structure and provides a "cone of protection" over the vehicle and pad structures. The 24-meter (80-foot) tall fiberglass mast is grounded by a cable which starts from a ground anchor 335 meters (1,100 feet) south of the Fixed Service Structure, angles up and over the lightning mast, then extends back down to a second ground anchor the same distance to the north. The mast functions as an electrical insulator, holding the cable away from the tower. The mast with its accompanying support structure extends 30 meters (100 feet) above the Fixed Service Structure.A Sound Suppression Water System has been installed on the pad to protect the orbiter and its payloads from damage by acoustical energy reflected from the Mobile Launcher Platform during launch. The Shuttle orbiter, with its payloads in the cargo hold, is much closer to the surface of the Mobile Launcher Platform than was the Apollo spacecraft at the top of a Saturn V or Saturn IB rocket.The sound suppression system includes an elevated water tank with a capacity of 1,135,550 liters (300,000 gallons). The tank is 88 meters (290 feet) high and is located on the northeast side of the pad. The water is released just prior to ignition of the Shuttle engines, and will flow through 2.1-meter (seven-foot) diameter pipes for about 20 seconds. Water pours from 16 nozzles atop the flame deflectors, and from outlets in the main exhaust hole in the Mobile Launcher Platform. By the time the solid rocket boosters ignite, a torrent of water will be flowing onto the Mobile Launcher Platform from six large quench nozzles, or "rainbirds," mounted on its surface.The rainbirds are 3.6 meters (12 feet) high. The two in the center are 107 centimeters (42 inches) in diameter; the other four have a 76 centimeter (30-inch) diameter. The peak rate of flow from all sources is 3,406,500 liters (900,000 gallons) of water per minute at nine seconds after liftoff.Acoustical levels reach their peak when the Space Shuttle is about 91 meters (300 feet) above the platform, and cease to be a problem at an altitude of about 308 meters (1,000 feet).Part of the Sound Suppression Water System is the Solid Rocket Booster Overpressure Suppression System. It alleviates the effect of a reflected pressure pulse which occurs at booster ignition. This pressure, without the suppression system, would exert significant forces on the wings and control surfaces of the orbiter.There are two primary components to the system. A water spray system provides a cushion of water which is directed into the flame hole directly beneath each booster. This is supplemented by a series of water "hammocks" stretched across each hole, providing a water mass to dampen the reflected pressure pulse. Used together, this water barrier blocks the path of the reflected pressure wave, greatly decreasing its intensity.In the event of an aborted mission, a Post-Shutdown Engine Deluge System is used to cool the aft end of the orbiter. It also controls the burning of residual hydrogen gas after the Shuttle's main engines have been shut down with the vehicle on the pad. There are 22 nozzles around the exhaust hole for the main engines within the Mobile Launcher Platform. Fed by a 15.2 centimeter (6-inch) diameter supply line, water flows at a rate up to 9,460 liters (2,500 gallons) per minute.Propellant Storage Facilities are located at both pads. Liquid oxygen, used as an oxidizer by the orbiter's main engines, is stored in a 3,406,500-1iter (900,000gallon) tank located at the northwest corner of each launch pad. This ball-shaped vessel is a huge vacuum bottle which is designed to maintain the supercold temperatures of cryogenic propellants.Liquid oxygen is transferred from the storage tank to the orbiter's external tank before flight by two pumps which supply 37,850 liters (10,000 gallons) per minute each.The liquid hydrogen fuel for the orbiter's main engines is stored in a similar 3,218,250-liter (850,000-gallon) ball-shaped vessel located at the northeast cornel of the pads.Pumps are not required to move the liquid hydrogen from the storage tank to the orbiter's external tank during fueling operations. A small amount of liquid hydrogen is allowed to vaporize. This creates a gas pressure in the top of the tank that moves the extremely light fuel through the transfer lines.The vacuum-jacketed transfer lines carry the supercold propellants to the Mobile Launcher Platform, where they are fed from the Tail Service Masts through the orbiter into the external tank.Hypergolic Propellants used by the orbiter's Orbital Maneuvering Engines and Attitude Control Thrusters are also stored at the pad in well-separated areas. The fuel, monomethylhydrazine, is maintained in a facility located on the southwest corner of the pad area. Nitrogen tetroxide, an oxidizer, is stored in a similar facility located on the southeast corner. These propellants are fed by transfer lines to the Fixed Service Structure and continue to the Rotating Service Structure's Hypergolic Umbilical System, by which they are attached to the orbiter.</text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 25TH</text>
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<text>* Skylab 2 crew returned from 59 days in orbit. Unfortunately, experiment spider Arabella died of unknown causes during reentry (1973).* French pilot Edmond Poillet was killed in his Savary biplane at Chartes, France as a result of a wind gust (1910). </text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 24TH</text>
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<text>* Jimmy Doolittle performed instrument only flight (1929).* First robot return of a lunar sample (1970).* Oldest (1961) Atlas rocket launched (1988).</text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 23RD</text>
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<text>* Final flight of NASA/USAF X-24B; it reached a speed of 1600 km/hr (1,000 mph) and an altitude of 70,000 feet after being released from a B-52 carrier jet.* Neptune discovered (1846).</text>
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<text>* H.G. Wells, author of "War of the Worlds," born (1866). Sketch at left is from H.G. Wells' famous novel showing the artists conception of Martians. Note the absence of a space suit for the Martian. What type of Mars environment does the artist's drawing suggest?</text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 20TH</text>
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<text>* For the first time animals are recovered alive from a rocket flight (1951). Note early science fiction artist's cover of space animal showing Washington his home planet in the Universe.* Von Braun arrives in the U.S.A. under "Operation Paperclip" (1945).</text>
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<text>* First stage of the authentic Saturn V rocket park display at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas arrived (1977).* The first Israeli satellite was launched (1988).* Space Task Group moved from Virginia to Houston, Texas and became the Manned Spacecraft Center (1961). </text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 17TH</text>
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<text>* Konstantin Tsiolkousky born (1857).* First airplane crash fatality, Lt. Thomas E. Selfridge, who was a passenger of Orville Wright in Wright's biplane (1908). </text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 16TH</text>
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<text>* The President Nixon predicted Americans would be on Mars in the 1980s (1969).* First balloon flight which carried the mail (Lafayette, IN, 1859).</text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 14TH</text>
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<text>* For the first time, a solo crossing of the Atlantic Ocean was made by balloon (1984). Early balloonists found balloon ideal for crossing bodies of water such as the English Channel. This led to the eventual crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in a balloon.</text>
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<text>* The first man-made object, Luna 2, struck the Moon (1959).* First free glide test flight of manned Space Shuttle Orbiter Enterprise by Fred Haise and Gordon Fullerton (1977).* "Sacramento Bee" newspaper described a reusable lunar rocket ship which launches from a plane (1947).</text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 12TH</text>
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<text>* President John F. Kennedy spoke at Rice University's Rice Stadium to 35,000 Houstonians, saying of the lunar landing program, "...we do this not because it is easy but because it is hard..." (1962). </text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 10TH</text>
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<text>* SARSAT used to rescue a downed aircraft. This was first rescue of an aircraft with help from a satellite (1982). Note: as of August 1984, 223 lives have been saved by this International Search and Rescue Program.</text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 9TH</text>
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<text>* Delivery of first Space Shuttle External Tank to NASA (1977).(Click on the above button for more).* Viking 2 lifts off towards Mars (1975).</text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 8TH</text>
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<text>* The first military long range rocket was fired on an enemy target when the German V-2 was launched with more than a ton of explosives. Like many of the German V-2's, it was directed against London (1944). (Key dates, Winrich, NASA Lewis Research Center, 1991.) Photo at left is of a V-2 about to be launched from a portable gantry. </text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 6TH</text>
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<text>* The first large rocket was launched from the deck of a ship, the USS Midway. Though launched from a U.S. aircraft carrier, the rocket is a German V-2 (1947). (Gatland, p. 13) </text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 5TH</text>
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<text>* Launch of Voyager 1, the grand tour of the Solar System (1977).* Fragments of Sputnik 4 landed in Manitowoc, WI (1962).* Pluto was at perihelion, closest to the Sun in its 247-year orbit (1989).</text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 2ND</text>
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<text>* Phobos 1 lost due to a command error (1988). The Phobos U.S.S.R. Probe had two types of landers: one was a Long-Term Automated Lander and the other was mobile by means of a hopping mechanism shown at left. It was called the Hopping Lander (Hopper).</text>
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<text> SEPTEMBER 1ST</text>
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<text>* Pioneer 11 passed within 21,000 miles of Saturn's main outer ring system (1979).* Asteroid Brandon discovered (1989).* Last known passenger pigeon died (1914).* Asteroid 3, Juno, discovered (1804).</text>
